CHAPTER I. Introduction (Part 1)

CHAPTER I. Introduction PAOK 1 CHAPTER II. Thb Education of Plumbers CHAPTER III. Elbmentart Science for Plumbsrb Sewaoe Disposal Sewbraob and Drainaob Sanitary Plumbing CHAPTER IV. CHAPTER V. CHAPTER VI. Sanitary Appliances Water Supply Hot- Water Supply Plumbers' Materials Plumbers' Tools CHAPTER VII. CHAPTER VIII. CHAPTER IX. CHAPTER X. CHAPTER XL CHAPTER XII. Plumbers' Rules and Tables Index .... 22 101 126 202 230 367 417 448 471 482 499 DOMESTIC SANITARY DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. CHAPTER I. INTRODUCTION. The City and Guilds of London Institute for the Advance- ment of Technical Education, acting in conjunction with the Worshipful Company of Plumbers, London, arranged for the delivery of courses of lectures to technical teachers of plumbing, journeymen plumbers, apprentices, and others, at the Central Technical Institute, Exhibition Road, South Kensington, on the subject of Domestic Sanitary Drainage and Plumbing. These lectures are published with the object of extending the sphere, and of promoting in some degree the ultimate success of the efiforts made by the Institute to advance the technical education of plumbers. These pages are arranged with the special intention of enabling plumbers to obtain a more intelligent grasp of the questions which they may be called on to solve at technological examinations in plumbing, and which they must inevitably face in daily practice. The author hopes, from forty years' practical experience, not only to provide useful instruction for plumbers in the theory and practice of their craft, but also to give to architects, engineers, and B 2 DOMESTIC SANITARY DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. others in professional contact with the craft, a wider and deeper appreciation of the importance of domestic sanitary drainage and plumbing, and to induce the public to consider and understand more fully the intimate relation existing between sanitary plumbing and public health. Various causes have combined to lower the dignity of the plumber's craft in public estimation, but in recent years the vital importance of sanitary plumbing and drainage has been admitted, and a desire has arisen among masters and artisans to elevate and improve the craft, which it is the object of this work to stimulate and strengthen. Dr. Pridgin Teale, of Leeds, has rendered good service to the public by stating boldly his opinion : '' One-third at least of the inci- dental illnesses in the kingdom are the direct result of drainage defects, and therefore can be, and ought to be, prevented." The truth of that important statement is attested by the experience of the author, who, in the course of over 3,000 sanitary surveys of dwelling-houses, from 1860 to 1890, was forced by the facts disclosed to furnish reports condemning 99 per 100. Out of 3,000 houses, 30 were in a sound sanitary condition, 2,970 were dangerous to the health of the residents owing to defective plumbing and drainage. Plumbing, or the art of casting and working in lead, claims a great antiquity. Lead undoubtedly was worked contemporaneously with silver, and is referred to in the oldest known writing, the Book of Job, as existing four thousand years ago, in patriarchal times — •* Oh that my words were now written ! Oh that they were inscribed in a book ! That with an iron pen and lead They were graven in the rock for ever ! " Italian plumbers wrought so nobly two thousand years ago that their lead- work remains to-day in the excavations INTRODUCTION. 3 of Some, Pompeii, London, Bath, and York, as worthy monuments of the ancient dignity of the art. Five hundred years ago English plumbing had been well established, for we find in 1365 an ordinance of King Edward III., followed by others of Henry VIL, Henry VIIL, and Elizabeth, conferring privileges and l^islating for the protection of the mutual interests of the public and of the craft. If the dignity of the craft, founded on so ancient and honourable a basis in the memory of past ages, is to be once again upheld, it must be restored and maintained by the honest determination of modem plumbers to emulate their ancestors in good work, and by honourable labour to excel them, if they can, both in knowledge and in skill. Each and every member of the plumbing craft, whether employer, foreman, journeyman, or apprentice, should seek to gain increased knowledge and experience in the science underlying his practice. The stimulating encouragement and the fostering care displayed towards the plumbing craft throughout this kingdom by the City and Guilds of London Institute, in conjunction with the London Guild of Plumbers, deserve to be remembered with respect, and to be taken full advantage of with energy and perseverance. Many of the City of London Guilds, which in olden times represented and controlled particular trades, are now only nominally connected with them, but the Worshipful Guild of Plumbers claims to be closely identified with the interests of the craft— many practical plumbers are livery- men of the company — so that it forms a rallying-point round which the trade can assemble for counsel and strength in difficulty or trouble. The Plumbers' Company traces back its ordinances to the fourteenth century, and as the history of plumbing should 4 DOMESTIC SANITARY DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. form a part of the technical education of plumbers, for the purpose of inciting students to attain excellence in their handicraft, the translation of these ancient ordinances from the Norman-French lai^uage used at that time is here given as recently republished by the Plumbers* Company : — 38 Edward IIL, A.D. 1365. LeUer Book E. {Norvian- French,) ' May it please the honourable men and wise, the Mayor, Becorder, and Aldermen of the City of London, to grant unto the Plumbers of the same City the points that here follow : — " In the first place, that no one of the trade of Plumbers shall meddle with works touching such trade within the said City, or take house or apprentices, or other workmen, in the same, if he be not free of the City; and that, by assent of the best and most skilled men in the said trade, testifying that he knows how well and lawfully to work, and to do his work; that so the said trade may not be scandalised, or the commonalty damaged and deceived, by folks who do not know their trade. ''Also that no one of the said trade shall take an apprentice for less than seven years ; and that he shall have him enrolled within the first year, and at the end of his term shall make him take up his freedom, according to the usage of the said City. "Also, that every one of the trade shall do his work well and lawfully, and shall use lawful weights, as well in selling as in buying, without any deceit or evil intent against any one ; and that for working a clove of lead for gutters, or for roofs of houses, he shall only take one half- penny; and for working a clove for furnaces, tappetroghes, belfreys, and conduit pipes, one penny; and for the waste INTRODUCTION. 5 of a wey of lead when newly molten [he shall have an allowance of two cloves], as has been the usage heretofore. ''Also, that no one for singular profit shall engross lead coming to the said City for sale, to the damage of the commonalty ; but that all persons of the said trade, as weU poor as rich, who may wish, shall be partners therein at their desire. And that no one, himself or by another, shall buy old lead that is on sale, or shall be, within the said City or without, to sell it again to the folks of the same trade, and' enhance the price of lead, to the damage of the commonalty. "Also, that no one of the said trade shall buy stripped lead of the assistants to tilers, laggers, or masons, or of women who cannot find warranty for the same. And if any shall do so, himself or by his servants, or if any one of them be found stealing lead, tin, or nails, in the place where he works, he shall be ousted from the said trade for ever, at the will and ordinance of the good folks of such trade. "Also, that no one of the said trade shall oust another from his work undertaken or begun, or shall take away his customers or his employers to his damage, by enticement through carpenters, masons, tilers, or other persons, as he would answer for the damage so inflicted, by good considera- tion of the masters of the said trade. "And if any one shall be found guilty under any one of the articles aforesaid, let him pay to the Chamber of the Guildhall, in London, for the first offence, 40 pence; for the second, half a mark; for the third, 20 shillings; and for the fourth, 10 pounds, or else forswear the trade." Plumbers have nothing to gain by denying that their •craft has in some points fallen away since those ancient ordinances were in force, but they may admit the fact with courage and hope, because they have determined to do all in their power to remedy shortcomings, and, by employing 6 DOMESTIC SANITARY DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. the lever of united effort and using as a willing fulcrum the Guild of Plumbers, they may hope, like Archimedes, to move the world. In order that all plumbers may be strong and of good courage, it is well to realise that by the revived trade action of the Plumbers Guild they have now an acknowledged head to a body of united craftsmen. The Plumbers' Company, in 1885, promoted and presided over a National Congress of Plumbers, when the status and condition of the plumbing craft was duly considered, together with the various means suggested for remedying abuses and elevating the craft, both in the interest of the plumbers themselves and of the public. The Court of the Plumbers* Guild seconded and supported every eflfort made. The Congress was unanimous in requesting the Plumbers' Company to take all necessary action for carrying the movement to a successful issue, acknowledging the Plumbers' Company as the proper head of the trade, and formally charging upon the Plumbers' Guild the responsibility of the guardianship of the craft. The following resolutions were adopted : — " 1. That experience points to the necessity for more closely particularising plumbing and draining work in agreements and specifications for buildings, treating such work in all cases as a separate item, in order that plumbers may be directly responsible for the quality of their work. " 2. That an extension of the existing system of technical instruction for plumbers is necessary, in order to compensate for the unsatisfactory apprenticeship now prevalent. " 3. That a system of registration of qualified plumbers, masters and journeymen, should be established. '4. That a generally acceptable standard of quality for plumbers' materials should be fixed. " 5. That all plumbing and draining work in new build- INTRODUCTION. 7 ii^ should be approved by a suitable local authority and inspected under Building Acts and by-laws." As the measures of reform thus recommended might affect public regulations and various existing interests, a repre- sentative Standing Council was elected, representative not only of plumbers, but of the building and other associated trades, and also of architects, engineers, and other pro- fessions immediately connected with plumbing, and this Council has since succeeded in carrying many of the resolu- tions of the Congress, especially the national registration of plumbers, into practical effect. All who are plumbers, or who desire to become plumbers, should aspire to a thorough knowledge of the craft; not merely to be able to wipe a solder joint — which, by the way, many plumbers are not able to do well — but to be competent to do all that a modem sanitary plumber ought to do, to know all that a modem sanitary plumber ought to know. There is a certain dignity in the plumber's trade. In that trade there is scope for highly intelligent skill and for manly character. The power of the arms and hands, the power of the mind and will, and the power of conscience may all be called into active service; and as each power grows stronger by exercise the more ennobled is the work done, and also the artisan who does it. Every joumeyman plumber should seek to perfect his skill in the handicraft of plumbing and his knowledge of the art and science of plumbing ; he should also be, in his conduct and principles, a conscientious man, with whom every one of any rank can deal, as respectable and honest men can deal with one another, m mutual respect and mutual confidence. ; A brotherly, helpful feeling should also be cultivated. The plumber's craft should be a brotherhood, in which every member should be ready to share his knowledge, experience, 8 DOMESTIC SANITARY DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. and skill with brother craftsmen, to the end that enlarged powers and extended knowledge may ennoble the craft, and raise it on a pedestal above other trades which demand only the strong muscles of a labourer's arm. There is a theory and practice in existence in the trade which tends to d^rade the plumber's handicraft. It is that false system which aims at securing for every workman, without regard to his industrial, mental, and moral powers, one standard of status and of payment. If any artisan's labour is worth high wages, he should receive the full value of his labour; if his labour is not worth high wages, he should not be allowed to claim more than his labour is worth. Any system demanding equal pay for unequal work destroys in the artisans all desire for improvement, all individual effort and responsibility, and turns the men who submit to its tyranny into menial servants and mere machines, without mind, without energy, and without ambition for higher and nobler things. Such trade prejudices should not be tolerated in the plumber's craft. It claims from every member a hearty determination to maintain its dignity in all his doings, and then the world will readily yield the respect which we claim as our right. Some old-fashioned persons hold the doctrine that plumbers should be required to confine their energies strictly to plumbing or lead-work, but the young men in the trade of the present day will seldom refuse an order for a kitchen range, or a fire-grate, or a mantelpiece if they can secure it from the householders they are employed by ; and so, in like manner, plumbers have had to submit, with the best grace they can, when merchants and manufacturers in other trades than plumbing have rivalled and out-distanced them in their own plumbing trade by greater energy, wider knowledge, and changing customs. CHAPTEK II. THE EDUCATION OF PLUMBERS. The education, or the drawing out of the powers of plumbers, has been, in common with that of other trades, sadly neglected ; the preparation of the ground for cultiva- tion, and the kind of seed sown, have been left to chance. The primary education of a lad intended to be a plumber should commence at the earliest age ; he has so much more knowledge to acquire than is needed for other trades. When parents learn to give up the early years of their children to systematic study a better time will be inaugurated for artisans. A well-grounded knowledge of arithmetic, prac- tical geometry, drawing, writing, spelling, grammar, and composition (I wish I could add, the use of tools) is easily acquired by an attentive, diligent lad at any National or Board School, and will prove of incalculable advantage to him in the race for pre-eminence as a plumber. If these things are not learned at school the lad will find no other time to pick them up, and he will then be easily beaten and left behind by those who wisely worked while they had the opportunity to do so. The absence of this preliminary groundwork of thorough primary instruction and education is the great difficulty with which technical teachers of plumbing have to contend. Workmen thirsting for improvement and seeking knowledge, listenii^ with strained ears to lectures and explanations, are from this cause frequently unable to gather up and 9 10 DOMESTIC SANITARY DRAINAGE AND PLUMBING. retain one quarter of the lesson. The writer has found in technical plumbing classes a need for the most elementary teaching in arithmetic and other subjects, especially for the older workmen. The young lads afford easier ground to work upon, owing to the greater opportunities in these days for acquiring a suitable elementary education. Artisans have told me that the information they gain ,at one class seems to push out what they learn at another class, and that their minds have no retentive power ; but, with judicious technical teachers, who will not try to teach too much at one time, but will teach a little thoroughly well, the students find that the knowledge will remain in their minds and prove of future service, even though they may be unable to frame satisfactory answers at the time, owing to the absence of a good primary elementary education in their youth. At fifteen or sixteen every lad should have acquired a sound sufficient education to fit him for his apprenticeship during the seven years of work which every youth ought to serve at the bench and on the job, in order to master the plumbing trade. Seven years apprenticeship is not too long a term for a plumber; it rapidly passes by if the lad be really earnest to learn and anxious to improve. Every particle of added knowledge and skill will add to the power of the apprentice when he becomes a journeyman. Apprenticeship in plumbing deserves encouragement ; the system should not be suffered to die out, though it seems in jeopardy at present.