CHAPTER II. THE HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS. (Part 6)

and by the food and drink which tempt these voracious animals. Rats have been proved to be • very dangerous as carriers and transmitters of plague, and probably other diseases. Their excreta deposited in foodstuffs may cause intestinal infection in man. Fleas and other parasites of rats may be carried to the human inhabitants and may infect human beings with plague and other diseases with which the rats may be afflicted. Insects. — Houses harbor a number of uninvited guests, who not only make the lives of their host miserable, but may even become a source of grave danger. Besides rats and mice, the most disagreeable of the uninvited guests and pests are the various insects with which some or most of the houses are teeming. These insects are the following: Roaches, water-bugs, beetles, centipedes, spiders, lice, fleas, bed-bugs, and last but not least, the mosquito. The very presence of these insects is disagreeable, either on account of their repulsive looks, or of their odors, or because of their bites. Moreover, the mode of feeding of most of these insects is objectionable to the human dwellers, who themselves are the hosts that furnish the sustenance. Relation of Insects to Disease. — Many of the insects in the house may become agents in the trans- mission and carrying of disease. The mode of propa- gation of disease by insects is by (1) transmission, (2) direct inoculation through their bites, and (3) by becoming the intermediate hostsof some infectious germs. Transmission. — There is little doubt that insects can transmit disease germs by means of their bodies, iioi SIC (Li-:..\i.(; 81 k'<is, \viii;j;s. etc., wliicli may <(iiiic in contact with llio food, clothes, and >kin> ot huuian hcinu^. I'hus, thc> (h>--cininatc (hscasc (hrcctly troin one |)er>on to another. I'lies, on account ••!' their prevalence and tiu'ir hahit ot' comint; in contact with excrenientitious material^ outride of the hon>e and with the food and (Iruik inside of tiie house, are the most actixc agent in disease dissemination. Inociildflofi. That certain insects l)y their bites inoculate human hcin^s with the irerms of diseases from which they themselves sutler has been surmised by many seientists for a long time, but definite proof of this has oid,\ latel' been obtained in the matter of the tran--ini»ion of |)la,ij;ue in which the role of fleas, bugs, and rats is j)rominent. Iiitrniirdidtr Hosts. — S(»me insects become the intermediate hosts of certain sjx'cific and dreaded infectious parasites, which must j)ass through an intermediate stage in insects before they develop into full-grown i)arasites capable of infecting human beings. The niosciuito, which has been pro\ed to i)e the cause of malaria and yellow fe\er. diseases which count their \ictims by hundreds of thousands, is a notable exaniplc. HOUSE CLEANING. The pi-c>cncc ill the houM' of >o many and such varied impurities so dangerous to health and life, make> the problem of their ])revention. their remo\al, and their destruction an important task. The war waged by the hou^e dweller again>t all 6 82 HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS kinds of impurities must be remorseless, constant, thorough, and exhaustive, for if but a short armistice is granted the enemies of mankind are Hkely to get the upper hand and increase to an extent which makes their final dislodgment most difficult if not impos- sible. The methods of warfare against house impuri- ties are threefold, aiming at (1) the prevention of the admission of filth, organic matter, etc.; (2) clean- ing and removing impurities from the house; (3) the destruction of infectious materials. Prevention. — To prevent the accumulation of Avaste matter, paper, rubbish, etc., such stufi^s should im- mediately be collected in closed receptacles and cremated. This may be done in ordinary stoves, ranges, and furnaces, or in special furnaces for the purpose, which should be more extensively ' intro- duced. It will surprise some housewives to learn how easily they may get rid of most of the house waste, as well as the garbage, in a well-constructed furnace, and how much this assists in keeping the house clean. Waste w^ater and sewage are disposed into the ])hmibing system with which each house should be provided. In rural communities, in which no sewer system is provided, the sewage and house-waste water may also be sent into a house-plumbing system, which empties into cesspools, or, better, into land irrigation. When no system of house plumbing exists, all w^aste water may be sent through rubber pipes into the kitchen garden, and the solid sewage may be collected in earth closets and used later as fertilizer. The removal of the sources of danger coming IKK SK CLKAMXi; S3 from various depict (M'ious fjnsos aiul poisons consists ill tli(> iiropcr {•onstniction of the house, its sauitary coiixcnicnccs. and it-^ propci- luaintciiaucc. (Irouud air from the ccllai' mav Ix- |)rt'\ fiitcd Ity a lliorou^li isolation of the lionet- foundation from the >oil l)y means of damp-proolinu mateiMals, and af■^o Ity a proper \cntilalion of the cellar. I/caks from illumi- natiujj; j^as pipes and fixtures may he i)revente(l hy a proptM" and jjood construction of the pijx's and fixlin-c--, and hy periodical ins|)ection and care, also l)y periodical and frecpient tests of the whole system. This also ai)plies to the plumbing pipes and ])lumh- ing fixtures. The pipes and fixtures must be properly constructed, all joinis made .uas-ti^ht, the whole system fre(piently insi)ected, anri i)eriodical tests made to detect defec-ts and leaks. Hand holes of traps and screw ea])s of trai)s should be uncoxcred and the traps cleaned out, and all sink and wash- basin traps and pipes cleaned once in a while by solutions of caustic soda or ])otash. Smoke and coal ,uas ma' be kept from entering' houses by a projjcr construction of the heating and codking sto"es and furnaces, by the skill in feeding them with jtroper fuel, by the care of chinmeys, Hues, and dampers. The best prophylaxis against arsenic and h'ad and other poisons in the house is tiie disuse of ])apers and l)aint> containing tho>e poisons as ingrc(lients and the substitution of papcis and jjaints free from toxic elements. There is really no justification for the use of any materials of which sonu- ingredients may become dangerous to the house dwellers. 84 HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS The prevention of dirt and dust within the house is one of the most important sanitary measures. With proper care in construction and maintenance there is no reason why it should not be possible to make houses dustless and dirtless. With the installation of an ideal system of me- chanical ventilation it is possible to eliminate all the dust coming into the house through windows and openings. These may then remain closed, and all incoming air may be filtered and passed through appropriate materials which will intercept all dust and leave the incoming air pure and dustless. Until the question of discarding the shoes worn outside before entering into a house, and the even more difficult one of women's skirts is settled, some substitute prophylactic measures must be provided, such as special vestibules in houses, with some me- chanical means of cleaning shoes and brushing off skirts. There is no inherent difficulty in the construc- tion of such mechanical cleaners, and their installation would do infinite good and prevent much harm. Other means of preventing dirt and dust are the proper hygienic construction of house interiors, and the elimination of certain dust- and dirt-gathering objects within the house. The elimination from the house in all dust-gathering objects is absolutely necessary. Thus carpets, rugs, curtains, soft stuffs, upholstered furniture, w^all paper, and all other dust- gathering and retaining materials and objects must be removed and kept out if the house is to be rendered dustless. Moulds, germs, mites, fungi, and bacteria will also not sK ( i.E.wisa So disappear from the hoii^r it" those prevent i(' meas- ures against dust and dirt are uui"ersally ad(i|)ted. The additional precaution of kee|)ini: the house dry and wi'll-aired will further diminish the ])resence of these impurities hy remo\ inj: the conditions of life favorahle to their j^rowth and de\eIopment. The kee])int; of domestic animals within th(> house is incompatil)le witii h&lt;;ienic housekeeJ)inJ,^ The ordinar' j)rerautions of bathing' and washinj^ them and of consulting veterinarians in case of sickness ma' diminish the dangers, hut will not entirely eliminate them. 'I'he pre'ention of the rat and mice ])est is a more difficult prohlem. for these aniniaU do not wait for an invitation to enter houses. The solid construction of walls and ffoors. the proper construction, lightin<: and ventilation of cellars and pantries, the inuue- diate cremation of all jjarbage and organic matter used by tlieni as food, the absolute cleanliness of kitchens, tlie keeping of food in tight recej)tacles, the use of rat traps, and j)eriodic-al inspection and cleaning of the house are some of the methods of ])reventing the living of rats and mice in the house. If these meas- ures fail, war-like methods, like poisoning and periodic fumigation with sulphur, mu^t be adopted. Tlie prevention and eradication of hou.se insects is no le.ss flifficult. Beetles, water-bugs, cockroaches spiders, and similar insects ma,' be eliminated from the house by the following means: Hy measures against house dampness and the maintenance of the dryness of the kitchen floors, walls, and cellars; the construction of floors and walls without cracks and 80 HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS crevices, the absence of any hiding and (hirk places for the habitat of insects; the frequent inspection, periodic and thorough cleaning of all rooms, and, especially of those in which the presence of the insects is noticed; the dusting of surfaces where some of these insects live with borax, boracic acid, or some other antiseptic and germicide; and finally, as in the case of rats and mice, periodic fumigation. Fleas and lice can be eliminated by the removal of domestic animals, by removing carpets and similar objects, and by the absolute cleanliness, in body and clothes, of the inhabitants. The elimination of the noxious bed-bug is difficult. It needs eternal vigilance on the part of the house- keeper; it needs absence of cracks in walls and floors, the more extensive use of light, airy, single, metal bed- steads and light, easily handled mattresses; it needs periodic inspection, thorough cleaning, and occasional fumigation. The elimination of the fly demands proper screen- ing of windows and doors; covering of all foodstuff with wire-mesh covers; the keeping of kitchens and dining-rooms in a proper and clean condition, free from scraps of food, garbage, and organic matter; and constant warfare by cleaning, disinfection, fumiga- tion, etc. The ravages of the mosquito must be prevented by draining all marshes and standing water near human habitations and towns, and the destruction of their larva by the use of kerosene oil. Means and Methods of Cleaning. — The common methods of house cleaning are wrong in principle. iiocsr: r /./•;, I \7.\r; .S7 t';mlt_- in llicii' cxfcntidii, ami futilf in llitir ctl'orts. The (•(iinini)n dry iiu't!i(i(l (if clcaiiiiiii; l)y tlif house- wife ami serxaiit is i)y means of the hrooni, hriisli, (luster, and feathers. These instrnnients. instead of eleanini: the house, raise the dust, thij) around the dirt, di^tml) (piietly lyinu; matter, and disseminate infeetious material otherwise harmlessl.- restin<^ in ])eaee. It i> remarkahle that centuries of ])r(),i,M'ess ha\e not helped to exoKc a more rational and sanitary method of houseeleanini:. The couunon wet method of {lean- ing is not nuieh more efiieaeious. The seruhhint; of floors, spilling of pails of water upon floors and sur- faces, soaking the woodwork, rendering it damj) and mouldy, are not ideal methods of cleaning, likely to assist in the elimination of dirt and house insects. The (•ari)et swee|)er and dry-rag duster ma> he included among alxnninations in l)ouse cleaning. rndouhtedly the best method of cleaning is by means of the vacuum cleaners. Some of these are portalile and (»perated by hand power or by electricity; others are installed in the house as a whole system with tubes and i)ij)iiig to all rooms, and s])ecial ar- rangements which make the exhaustion of dirt and (lu>t a matter of little difhculty. No greater evi- dence of the enormous amount of dirt found in the (•arju'ts and rooms of houses is needed than the barrels and barrcK of dirt which these vacuum (•lcancr•^ collect. The only objection against them is their e\i)ense, but with their unixcrsal introduction this max become smaller. The other rati(»nal method of cleanii\g is by going 88 HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS over all the walls of rooms and the objects in the rooms with damp rags, thus removing the dust and dirt; occasionally some mild antiseptic, such as tur- pentine, carbolic acid, or a weak solution of corrosive sublimate, should be used. In house cleaning it is of the utmost importance to make the process thorough, regular, and periodic. Houses and rooms must be cleaned daily, weekly, monthly, and a special cleaning must be given every three months at the end of the season. cii apti:k III. 'riiF. II^■(;^•:^■K of foods and food SFFFLY. FOODS. ''Food is that irhirli, irhni faLrn into the ho(]}i,})iiU(1s tissue or }/if'}(}s nicrfii/." Kxcrytliiiii: i> therefore food which may he used for tlie jjurposc of rri)l;i(in<; the wear and tear of the cells of the hody. or of supplyiiii: lieat and energy To the body, or of storing u]) such energy for future u>e. The following, while not strictl.x' foods are also included: il) certain materials, consisting of cellulose or wood fiher, which, though not ser\ing to "huild tissue or yield energx"' are needed to give hulk to the foods ingesteil and ser\e a certain j)urj)ose in the ])hysi- eal process of digestion; (2) water; (']) certain ingre- dients, called vitamins, the functions of which are not yet determined hut the necessity of which are clearly manifested. Sdiircrs of Food.— The sources of lunnan food are the animal, vegetahle and mineral kingdoms. The flesh of a large numher of domestic and w ild animals is used as human food when •>pecially |)re|)ared and modified. As food are also used a inunher of cereals, roots, vege- tables, fruits and nut>. either in the natural state or sj)ecially prejjared and modified i)y art and -science. 00 JlVaiKNE OF FOODS AND FOOD SUPPLY We also use as food certain minerals found either in the natiu'al state or as ingredients of other food products. Chemical Composition. — In their final analysis, all foods contain the elements: Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur, sodium, potassium, calcium, mag- nesia, etc. Most of the foods are derived from the organic world. The inorganic foods are the mineral matter and water. The organic foods are divided into two mniii groups: Nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous. T.J., , . ( White of eggs, curd or casein of milk, Nitrogenous protein { , ? i ^ r t, ^ ^ ( lean meat, gluten of wheat, etc. TVT ., 4. ■ f Carbohydrates: sugar, starch, etc. Non-nitrogenous protein { t, . ■ , ? , i l_ l<ats: animal, vegetable. The Relative Use and Value of Each Food Component. — Each of the food components is essential to life. A certain amount, therefore, of each must be used in order to sustain and continue life. Protein. — The muscles, the blood, the lymph, and other parts of the human body and organs contain a large percentage of protein or albumin matter. There is a constant loss of these protein cells in the body metabolism, and consequently a need to repair and replace this loss. This is accomplished by the ingestion of foods which have a certain percentage of protein in their composition. All animal foods contain a large proportion of proteins, while vegetables, w^ith a few exceptions, contain but a small proportion of protein. The chemical composition of protein matter depends upon its source. Thus there are difTerent varieties FOODS 01 of i)rotoin matter, such as tlio allmniiiis, j,'l(tl»ulins, alhiuniuouls, micU-o-allminius, peptones, etc. Carbohydrates and Vats. — The lieat aii<l energy of the body use uj) certain elements, such us oxyj^en, carbon, and hydrogen, and tliese must be replaced by food. The carbohydrates and fats supply this need. Fats and carbohydrates are to some extent interclianijeable. The jirincipal elements of food which furnish the carbohydrates are the sugars and the starches, which digestive ])rocesses convert into sugars. The fats are found in foods in the form of fat and oil. Mineral Matter. — The body contains a cpiantity of mineral matter which is found in the form of ashes when the body is burned. The minerals which have been enumerated are found in the body and are also needed as food for the formation of bone and as an aid to digestive processes. It is claimed that the lack of certain inorganic matters, especially acids, is capable of producing the distnise called "scurvy" which is found among sailors and others who are deprived of foods containing those acids. Water. — The human body consists of two-thinls of its weight of water. The body loses water con- stantly through the lungs, skin, and excretory ducts, The amount of the daily loss of water depends upon many factors, and is estimated at from 2()0() to :!()()() grams. There is therefore needed a considerable amount of water for daily use, and this is partly furnished by the water which is a component of nearly every foofl, and partly by the water consumed with, or in addition to, the food. 92 HYGIENE OF FOODS AND FOOD SUPPLY J^'lfannns. — lender this term are grouped certain elements of food, the exact chemical composition of which is as yet unknown, but the presence of which ingredients is absolutely needed in foods to preserve the health and life of man. The absence of vitamins is known to have caused certain diseases, such as beriberi, scurvy, and possibly pellagra, as well as other ill-defined conditions of health. These vitamins are important to the well-being of the body. They are found in the skin and coating of grains,