CHAPTER II. THE HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS. (Part 5)

diameter in small houses and five inches in tenement houses and larger buildings. The soil and waste pipes should never be built in the walls, but should be exposed throughout their whole length, so that they can be inspected at all times and that defects may be seen as soon as they occur. If the pipes are gas-tight there is no reason to fear their exposure. With proper i'i.r.\Hii.&lt;; /'//'/■>■ ..\i> FiXTi h'i-:s 09 bronziiij; or painting they need not be artistically more ol>jr(tioiial)lc tlian exposed steam pipes. Specially built shafts in which tiie pipes are soDietimes placed must be made wide enough to allow entrance, inspec- tion, and rei)airs. The waatc pipe is the ])ipe to which sinks, laundry tubs and basins are connected. It is of heavy cast- iron with lead-calked joints, and varies in diameter from tlu"ee to four inches. Waste and soil pipes should not end in the house, but should be extended open above the roof, at least two feet above every coping. As the extension must be at least four inches in diameter, two- and tlu-ee- inch waste pipes will have to be increased to four inches in the extension pipe above the roof. Pipes of larger diameter should run above the roof. Branch soil and waste pipes run from the various fixtures to the main soil and waste pipes, join with ''Y" branches, and are of lead when less than four inches in diameter and of iron when four inches and above. Branch waste pipes from basins, sinks, and tubs are usually one and a half inches and two inches; branch soil pipes of water closets are three inches and four inches (in New York not less than four inches). The traps on the branch soil and waste pipes are not more than two feet from the fixture, and are provided with a screw cap for cleansing purposes. Vent pipes and branch vents are of iron. The size of main vent pipes depends upon the nund)er of fixtures with which they are coimected. The main vents either run above the roof or join the vertical pipes abo\ t' the fixtures. 70 HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS Rain leaders serve to collect the rain water from the roof. They are made of (jahanized or cast iron, or of sheet metal. The vertical i)ii)e only is trapped at its base before connection with the house drain. The ostensible purpose of this trap is to prevent sewer air from escaping into the rain leader and entering the rooms near the windows of which the rain leader runs. As the trap of the rain leader is frequently empty, owing to evaporation during draughts or freezing during winter, and as the rain leader is situ- ated outside of the house, there does not seem much reason for its being trapped. Fixtures. — Sinks, wash basins, laundry and bath tubs are made of various materials. From a sanitary point of view the worst material is wood, which was formerly much used; zinc or copper lining is not much better; somewhat better is cast iron. The more modern fixtures are invariably made of enamelled iron, which is smooth, durable, and sanitary in all respects. Porcelain fixtures are more expensive, but their advantage over enamelled iron when properly made is small. Bath tubs are commonly in the same room with water dosets. They are connected wdth the soil pipes several feet below the water-closet connection, and if not vented the traps are apt to be siphoned by the discharge of the water closets. The overflows from bath tubs and basins should be connected on the inside of the trap on the same fixture. Standpipe overflows are preferable to fixed ones. Refrigerators should not be directly connected with the plumbing system of a house, but their waste pipes I r. I 77.7.' CLOSHTS 71 should Ik- luatlr to tliscliar^^c into proiK-rly ir.-ipixd, sewrr-c'oniu'cted. \vatt'r-sui)i)li(tl o|)fii sinks. 'V\v scdiiiu'iit ])i|H'^ of kitchen l)oik'rs slioiiltl he c'oniu'cttMl with sink traps on x\v inU-t side, and should be provided with faucets. It is still hetter not to connect them with the pipes. All fixtures should he separately trapi)ed. except that one trap is permitted for (several not more than three) laundry tubs, and one line. WATER CLOSETS. \Vater->upplied fixtures of some sort or other for the receiving of fecal matter have been in use for many years. Unfortunately the type of the fixtures which have been extensively used until lately embodied many defects which made them unsanitary. Of the older fixtures it is sufficient to name the so-called " i)an water closet," the "plimge closet," the "school sink," the "long hoppers," the "wash-out closet," etc. Modem Water Closets.— The.se are made of baked clay or i)orcelain, with an enamelled and smooth sur- face, trapped and bolted in one piece, and so arranged that the excreta drops into the receptacle, always containing water, from wliich the soil is i)roperly flushed out and the whole cleaned out every time it is used. The value of these fixtures depends not only u])on tiu'ir shape, but also ui)on the methoil-- ot their flush and the abundant suj)ply ..f water, l-'ormerly the water closets were flu-he<l directly b.\ a pii)e connected with the fi\ture>. Tin-, however, was found to be defective bv rea-^on of tlu- in-ut!iciency of the 72 HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS volume of water furnished. The method used at present is the flushing of these fixtures by means of a separate flush tank placed at least four to six inches above the fixture.* These tanks hold from three to five gallons of water, are connected with fixtures by flush pipes of one and a half inch in diameter, and are emptied by the pull of a chain. In some public places these tanks are so arranged that they automatically discharge their contents at certain intervals. The added cost of the flush tanks has caused various devices to be invented, with the view of eliminating theu- installation. There are a number of efficient "flushometers" which are used for this purpose. Water-closet Apartments. — The undesirability of plac- ing the water closets in the yard has already been mentioned. It is unnecessary to add that the water closets should never be placed in cellars. There are also grave objections against water closets in halls, which are frequently found in tenement houses. In office or public buildings there is perhaps no reason why the water-closet apartments should not be located in a separate compartment in the hallways, but in tenement houses this is objectionable on account of the neglect of the fixture if responsibility is divided and each tenant has not his own separate fixtiu-e. Wherever the fixture is placed, there are several requirements which ought to be absolutely adhered to; these are the following: Sufficient space, plenty of natural light by adequate window space opening into the outer air, provision for artificial light, pro- vision for heating in cold weather, smooth and non- absorbent walls and ceilings, a floor of cement, con^ ffOrSK WASTI-: MATTKUS. 78 Crete, slate, tile, oi' ;my ntlicr iioii-ahsoilx'nt and readilN' eleansil)!!- iiiatciial. It' in addition there is separate entrance from the prixatc hahwax, and the ajiartnients are phiccd at sonic (hstance from hed rooms and living re)oms, the least ohjectionahle, most advantageous location and constrnctictn of these necessary, thongh sometimes offensive, conxcniences is obtained. HOUSE WASTE MATTERS. Waste Matter: Rubbish and Garbage. — A large amoinit of various \va>te matter is found in the house, such as newspapers, rags, wool, and cloth remnants, pieces of clothing, rags, detritus of wood, stone, and other articles; also remnants of foodstuff's, cooked and imcooked meats and vegetables, etc. Some rubbish may be harmless, but it may become a vehicle and carrier of dust, dirt, and possibly patho- genic germs. Remnants of cloth and rags may be saturated with organic matter, or contain insects and parasites, as well as ill-smelling and foul organic material. (larbage, consisting of remnants of foodstuffs, is apt to putrefy and decompose, to attract insects and rats, to emit foul odors, or it may contain dangerous micror)rganisms. Waste Water and Sewage. This consists of the water used in washing di>hes, clothes, vegetable and animal food, and in cleaning; of waste water from baths, etc., anil also of liquid an<l solid excreta. In hou-ses provided with modern water-carriage plumbing systems most of the waste water and sewage 74 HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS is efTectually disposed of by being carried away into the house and tlie street sewer and flushed by copious discharges of \A'ater. Whenever houses are without a system of phimbing, accumulation of the waste matter may become dangerous to heahh on account of decomposition and foul odors and the presence of microorganisms. Gases and Poisons. — The character of the various gases and poisons w^hich may be found in houses vary, but the most common are the following: Car- bon dioxide, coal gas, carbon monoxide, illuminating gas, smoke, "sewer gas," and of the poisons the most common are arsenic, lead, antimony, etc. Carbon Dioxide. — Carbon dioxide is a constituent of the air in the proportion of 3 or 4 volumes in 10,000 volumes, but in some ill-ventilated rooms the amount of carbon dioxide may reach from 20 to 50 times the normal amount. There is comparatively little danger to health from carbon dioxide unless it is present in excessive quantities. Carbon Monoxide. — Carbon monoxide is a constit- uent of illuminating gas and comes into the house from various defects in the gas pipes and fixtures through which the gas may escape. The inhalation of even minute quantities of illuminating gas is in- jurious, and may cause headache, anemia, etc. The inhalation of large quantities may cause death by suffocation, a^s the carbon monoxide combines with the hemoglobin of the blood. The escape of illumi- nating gas is also a frequent cause of fires and explo- sions which endanger property and life. Carbon monoxide is also given off by imperfectly burning nocsE WASTh: ./.r/"/'A7.'N in illumiiKiMts, hy chjircoal hiirniiij,', and l>y iinpcrfcct lu'atinij: arraniicnu'iits and imperfect conihnstioii nf coal, as well as Ky iron stox'cs which are allou<(l to luvonie red hot. Sniohc (tiiil CiHil (las. Inipcrt'ect cond)nstion ot wood and coal produces smoke and coal uas. Their j)resence is also due to faulty chimneys, hack dranirht from Hues, partial cl(>sin>,' of dampers, etc. Smoke causes iuHammations of the conjunctiva, headaches, nausea, ill-feeliuii. vomiting', and in larue (piantities, suffocation. Sewer ^V^s•. — As already indicated, what is com- monly called "sewer jias" is only the air in sewers and plumhiniT drains and ])ipes. It may he entirclx' free from any deleterious uiatter, hut frecpiently con- tains various gases, such as ammonia compounds, marsh gas, sulphuretted hydrogen, etc., which arise from the decomposing organic matter within the I)ipes. 'i'he effluvia escape through defects in the l)lumhing system, and their harmfulness depends upon their (piantity and character. Poisons.- Wall paper colored with poisonous dyes i> the most counnon source of the various poisons which may he found in the air of rooms. Minute particles of the wall i)ai)er floating in the air. the ruhl)ed-otV coloring matter adhering to dust, and scraped-otV dehris from |)ainted surfaces may all contain arsenic, antiinon-. lead, and nijur poisons. Numerous cases of arsenical i)oisoning hy wall pai)er liave heen reported, and in some countries, notahly France and (lermany, the use of arsenic for coloring wall paper i^ prohihitcd hy law. Lately. Ncplie tried 76 HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS to prove that poisoning by arsenical paper is not due to the dry dust, but to the volatile organic arsenical compound produced in the moisture present by the action of certain moulds on the paste used to attach the paper. Most American manufacturers of wall paper claim that no arsenic or other poisons are used at present in the manufacture of wall papers. The presence of lead may be due to the dust from lead-painted walls and surfaces. Dust and Dirt. — Dirt and dust may be organic or inorganic, coarse or fine, and generally consist of fragments and particles of earth, soil, clay, stone, brick, wood, lime, plaster, hair, wool, animal and vegetable matter, ashes, pulverized excreta of animals and insects, dried sputum and discharges of the healthy and sick, pollen of flowers, pulverized wool, cotton and silk fabrics and clothes, moulds, fungi, and sapro- phytic and pathogenic germs. The street and the outside of the house contribute a large part of the house dirt and dust. Some of it gains access through open windows and doors or other openings, but most of it is brought in by the dwellers on their clothes, skirts and shoes. It is, of course, useless to preach against the com- mon habit of not discarding in the house the shoes worn in the streets and fields. These shoes carry manure, organic refuse, moist and dried excreta of man and animals, moist and dry discharges from the sick and well, sputum of consumptives, and millions of germs. Why such receptacles, laden with germs of disease, should not be left behind when coming into our " sweet homes," as is done by the " benighted" Orientals, is a question the answer to which is vainly sought. { iKicsr: wAsri-: MMTh'Rs 77 It is also usc-k'ss to (k-crx' the cfiually iinli'^i«Miic hal)it of woiiUMi of weariiij; trailinj^ skirts wkick drag along and s\iv|) n[) tlir pavements of the streets and sidewalks as well as the gutters, gathering tlie rich harvest of the same dangerous matter and bringing it into the house. The house itself is a source of dirt and ihist. Frag- ments of walls. Hoors, and ceilings, various objects like furniture, i)lants, flowers, also the various pro- cesses carried on within the house, such as sewing, cooking, lighting, heating, etc.. all furnish their quota of the dirt falling ui)on the various surfaces of the house, and of the tlust floating around in the air and settling upon various objects. The most important source of dirt and dust is, of course, man himself. Dirt and dust are brought in. by persons upon their clothes and bodies. Considerable filth is due to the discharges from animals and human beings, and a very large part of the house dirt is due to the filthy habit of expectoration. In his booklet on Dufit and its Dnngrr.t, Dr. Prudden expresses himself in the following forcible manner about expectoration: "The spectacle of the well-<lressed, filthy brutes, whom natural selection has most unkindly left l)nt a few degrees higher than their congeners in the sty, wallowing in their expec- toration, about certain hotels and theatre entrances, may well impress the sensitive onlookers with the colossal task which nature undertook when she set to work to evolve man, and the lanientabje failures which are so often but half-concealed in fashional>le attire." 78 HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS The Dangers of House Dust. — The character, the (luantity, the sources of the dirt and dust as well as the individual susceptibility and healthy condition of the house dweller are all determining factors in the amount and intensity of the danger to health and life. The inhalation of dust is injurious to the mucous membrane of the nose and throat, and may cause inflammation and catarrh of the respiratory tract. Dust consisting of the scales from the skin of persons suffering from measles and scarlet fever is apt to produce the same disease in healthy persons coming in contact with it. The greatest danger from dust comes from the pathogenic germs which adhere to it. They come from the dried sputum, skin scales, and other dis- charges of infected persons which contain the specific microbes of various specific diseases. The dust con- taining tubercle bacilli from the sputa of consump- tives, the dust containing the germs of typhoid fever from discharges of tj^hoid patients, and the other microorganisms from the many infectious and con- tagious diseases are, of course, very dangerous and capable of producing those diseases in health}' persons either by inlialation, or by ingestion through food. That such infectious germs are abundantly found within the house has been proved by the experiments and in^'estigations of many hygienists. In many houses, especially those which are damp, there are found a number of low moulds, mites, and fungi, some of which are dangerous to health. Among the most important of these is the fungus of "dry IKK SI-: WASTI-: MATTERS 70 rot." " Iliiusschwamin. (tr Mcrilius LiUT>inaiis." wliidi is t'diiiid in (lain|) houses. The orf/dnlr iii(iff( r wliicli i> ahiindaiitly t'oiiiid in the dirt and in the snj)erinij)osed layers of (hist upon all surfaces witiiin the room is dangerous to liealth lieeause of the putrefaction and decomposition going on within it, because of the foul and disgusting odors emanating from it, and also because of the \arious pathogenic germs which may he found in it. When horse niaiuu'c is a ])art of the organic dirt of the house it may contain tetanus bacilli, which may lead to infection with that dread disease. Also al^undant organic matter, especiallx in dark and damp places, attracts rats and insects. Domestic and Other Animals. Domestic animals are often a source of danger. The common pets are dogs, cats, birds, and more rarely, rabliits, squirrels, monkeys, etc. The sources of danger to health from the animals are (1) in their excreta, (2) from the para- sites living upon them, (3) from the dirt and germs which they ma' carry in uixm themselves from out- side, and (4) from the diseases with which the animals themselves may be afflicted. Among the diseases of domc->tic animals which may l)e transmitted to man arc ringworm. fa\us, scabies, tetanus, anthrax, glanders, actinomycosis, "psitta- cosis" (a pulmonary disease of i)arrots), influenza, diphtheria, plague, etc. Rats are not exactly (lom"stic animals, but the' may infest houses and become a veiitable ])e-^t. Their presence is favored by the construction of the house, which IcaN'es a hollow sjiace between the walK and 80 HYGIENE OF HABITATIONS floors