Part III

down, and if early or late frosts do not injure the plants, a beautiful growth will be the result. There is sometimes found upon the highest mountains, soil which is as sour as that just mentioned, but from a different cause. For while in the swamps, the acidity proceeds from too great an abundance of standing water; upon the mountains it is caused by a lack of moisture. The remedy is the same as in the first case, but upon the mountains the hills must be made large and covered with stones, and in each hill should be placed five Spruce plants instead of three. But such work is generally too expensive and complicated for the farmer to perform unless he is endowed with �extraordinary patienecs and energy. Sometimes soil is so stony that there is not enough earth to cover the roots of the plants, and yet fine forests are produced in these very localities, while the land is of no value for anything else. It is not referred to a soil composed of gravel. In those places, seeding is preferable to planting, as the stones retain moisture beneath themselves and also afford shelter to the young plants or trees. But not to waste seed, it should be put between the stones with the fingers in places where a little good earth can be found, thereby giving to �each seed its proper situation and distributing the trees as evenly as when trausj)lanted. Put three to four seeds of Yellow or Scotch pine in a place. There can be no doubt that newly planted trees derive benefit from the cultivation of the soil around them, but it must be confessed that such a course is impossible where hundreds and thousands of acres are planted in a single year, and therefore the practice is virtually out of the question in the general forests, although it may be done in the nursery. If the work of transplanting is well done, and only thrifty plants are used, it is sufficient to aid them in their growth during the first and second summer, by cutting the grass and weeds around them, before they run to seeds, and mulching around the foot of the plants with it. Such wreeds shelter the plants against the heat of the sun and drying wind, and should not be disturbed, and the material for mulching should be taken at some distance off from the plants. The mulching should be done after a rain, so as to retain the moisture around the trees. The mulching has the effect to keep the ground moist and loose around the trees. If the weeds ;yre allowed to grow, they will cover the ground and give some protection to the roots during the winter and some organic deposits favorable to the trees. For Evergreens, the seeding of oats or bush beans on the sunny side of the rows is an additional protection rather than the removing of any natural shelter that there already exists. --57-- CHAPTER XV. DRAINAGE OF FORESTS. A large portion of the country is covered by so-called swamps and marshes, which in their present condition, are valueless, and there is little prospect that there will be any change. Their origin is mainly due: 1. To their low situation. 2. To a hard sub-soil, through which water cannot pass. 3. To the stopping of the natural drainage by the tilling up of the beds of streams and rivers. As there are many reasons for the existence of swamps, so, many A must be the ways of reclaiming them. survey of the places and the forming of eifective plans for remedying the evils are the first requisites. In forest lands, the digging of ditches is sometimes sufficient to effect a good drainage, without sacrificing any of the aera as unculturable land. In some cases if a number of adjacent property owners would associate themselves together and undertake the drainage of their lands, they might find others at a distance whose land were too dry who would gladly assume a part of the cost entailed in doing the work on account of the benefit their fields would derive by the surplus water. If we have succeeded in draining flie water wholly, or in part, from any portion of the land where jjeet has formed, we must not at once plant trees there, but let the mass settle in quality before doing the work. Springs sometimes create swamps, even on high plateaus. In such cases, discover the origin of the springs, and by digging ditches with the necessary fall, carry the water away to some convenient point, or if they have their origin within the swamps, cut directly across them and thus effect a drainage. In this way an opportunity is affoided of watering other places which are very dry, and gaining full returns for all which the drain- age has cost us. --58-- The soil of a large aera consists of a heavy clay, which cannot be worked until very late in the spring. The ground is too cold for the germination of the seed, or to enable the roots to begin their growth. While time is thus lost and the growing season shortened, there is another difficulty with such soils, when long-lasting drought occurs. Then the soil becomes very hard, and when the water has evaporated, it shrinks; large cracks are formed and the roots of the growing crops are not only cut in pieces, but also exposed to the sun and dry winds. The drainage of such a place, by means of either a stone or tile drain, would remove all such hindeiances to the growth of crops. The main point is to allow atmospheric air, (oxygen) to enter the soil and make it more mellow, and consequently, sooner warm and fit for the reception of the seed. It all farms could be managed in accordance with reason and the laws of nature, less complaints would be heard, that the soil of this or that locality was exhausted. There is no exhaustion, but only a need of more painstaking and the exercise of betterjudgement. CHAPTER XVI. THE THINNING OF FORESTS. Important as it is that young trees should grow close together until they have attained a certain age and size, it is just as necessary to aid them by thinning out when crowded. There are many reasons why they should at the beginning be closely planted � 1. If every piece of land destitute of good vegetation and forest growth, and exposed to the burning rays of the sun and to atmospheric influences, becomes yearly poorer, it must be our aim to give the young trees planted theruepon the needed cover and protection against these influences. The planting must therefore be done thickly, that the area may quickly re- ceive the necessary shade. 2. Trees closely planted grow in the direction of their height and the lower branches being shaded, will go to decay before their dimensions become such as to spoil the trunk and its future value for timber. But by a judicious thinning out the requisite space should be given to each tree. In giving to plants the necessary room for their growth, many things must be taken in consideration. To give general rules is difficult as good judgement of the operator is the first and main requisite. In doubtful cases it is better to leave the largest and finest trees and remove the others; but the thinnino- should not be done to such an extent as to leave spots of oround uncovered and exposed to the sun. To avoid this even some poor trees may be suffered to remain. Neither should any branches be cut from those lett standing, not even those that grow very near to the ground, since these are the very ones which keep out the sun and prevent the wind from blowing the leaves away, especially in mountainous i egions. The poorer the soil and the more exposed the place is to atmospheric influences, the -more careful should the thinning out be performed. -60-- The greater the uniformity existing among trees, the more they need thinning, especially with such as have been planted, particularly with Spruce. The thicker the trees stand the more carfully must the operation of thinning out be conducted. Where heavy snowfalls occur the process, should be commenced quite early and good judgement exercised to prevent the breaking down of the tops. The more often the thinning is done the better for the forest. In those places where it is desired to raise timber alone, the trees must be kept the thickest. At or near the edge of the wood they should be lefc to grow more closely than at other points, hardly any being removed, as otherwise an entrance will be given to the wind to blow off the leaves, and to the sun to burn up the ground. It is much the best to thin out in the summer, when the closing of the tops and branches can be better observed. Deciduous trees should always be cut close to the ground that they may spread again and add to the shading and fertility of the soil by the leaves of the new shoots. It may here be mentioned to satisfy those that advocate letting the thinning of young forests to natures care, that nature will perform that duty excellently, and manage it so that a number of the trees would in time make room for themselves and come out of the battle victorious, from the survival of the strongest, but this battle is fought greatly at the expense of" the survivors themselves, since under such circumstances their own growth. is very much retarded. CHAPTER XVII. DAMAGES TO FORESTS. So long as forests remain in their natural, primeval state, there is no danger of any damage being done them by insect tribes, even if any exist within their boundaries. But as soon as we begin to meddle with them, by cutting down trees, and especially when it becomes needful to replace them by planting, &c, the ravages immediately begin to show. Damages By Insects. Insects hardly ever attack a thoroughly healthy tree until they have so increased in numbers, that the sickly specimens cannot furnish them with an adequate supply of food. In a healthy forest, the conditions for their multiplication are not present. In the old forests there is too much shade and moisture and a lack of high temperature fovor able for the hatching of the eggs of insects or from their changing from one state of development to another. The millions of hardly visible holes in spruce and pine logs, as well as those of hardwood trees prove the presence of the most destructive of insects the borer, (Bostricus) in alarming numbers. During the months of of April and May, as their swarming time, cut down a large number of trees and let them lie upon the ground until after this is over and the.i peel off the bark. They will in most cases, lay their eggs in these fallen trees and upon peeling off the bark, these, or perhaps the larvae, if already developed, will be exposed to the sun and weather and thus millions of these insects destroyed and hindered from coming to maturity. The bark should be burned, as some species lay their eggs in it. The larvae which hatch from the eggs continue the work of destruction and in their turn change into chrysalist within the tree, coming out in the follow- ing spring as full-fledged insects. As far as known, each species of tree has insect enemies peculiar to it- self, and if all are not as mischiveous as the borer, any of them will do --6a-- more or less damage. Some species of borer work between the wood and bark while others go right to the center of the wood, causing young trees to break down, There is another insect in our forests which does its mischief while in the fully developed state, as a beetle, the "wevil," or "curculio, R." In the cultivation of a young growth of Evergreens, this insect appears, but it drops to the ground upon the least danger which may threaten it. Only tra es of its ravages in the bark of the young trees gnawed off just above the ground can be seen, and the sap oozing from the wounds thus made while the perpetrator of the mischief lies on his back just beneath, indulg- ing himself in the fond belief that he is innocent of having done any harm to the tree. The color of the insect is blackish brown, and therefore it is not easy to detect it as it lies upon the earth. It is about the size of the Col- orado beetle, but its body is longer and it has a muzzle, or trunk with which it does its mischief. The only known protection against it, is to lay beside the young plants a little bunch of fresh-broken Spruce branches or bark of the same species as the plants themselves and cover them with sod or stone to keep them in place and shaded. The fresh-smelling resin has more attraction for the beetle than the plants. There are many species of beetles, some of which eat the bark, and others the leaves of the trees, or their seeds, but the damage they do to the large trees, does not compare with that done to young plants, of which they will kill nearly all if left undisturbed. The immense harm done to the forests of Europe by caterpillars shows plainly what we may expect, unless a close watch is kept constantly, and all rubbish left in the forest, careful- ly collected and burned, while pieces of woodland, through which fires have run, if they present a sickly appearance, should be entirely removed. Pine forests are much more subject to attacks from insects than those of deciduous trees, and it is therefore best to mix both kinds together in a forest. Damage by Heavy Frosts. Severe cold or frost is hurtful to most kinds of forest trees and even if its injurious effects are not seen at once, their less rapid growth and shortened lives are some of the evil results which the best of soils cannot prevent. Frosts are particularly damaging after trees begin to renew their growth in the spring. The effect of late or early frosts is mostly felt by the Evergreens, as it takes them longer to form new upright shoots than other trees. The planting of entirely hardy, between the less hardy trees will greatly prevent the injurious effects. 3. Damage by the Sun. The direct rays of the sun are not only dangerous and hurtful to the small seeds just germinating and to the little plants, but also to large trees. If after cutting, the hot sun shines upon the exposed trunks of these which are left, they will become scorched and --63-- blighted, the bark will drop off and much harm be the consequence. To> avoid injury being done in this manner, divide the woodlands so that the boundaries of the annual cuts may lead from North to South. Young plants, especially evergreens, must be protected from the sun and from frost by the planting of rapidly growing and hardy plants, which may be cut down after those which they have to protect are able to shelter themselves. Blight takes place on trees forming orchards from the same cause as in others and therefore the planting with them of some hardy forest treeswhich form large tops, but do not shade them too much are recommend- able. 4. Damages by Wind. The different quarters from which winds blow give the forester little opportunity to protect his forests against their damaging influences; he may guard them from injury from the local prevailing winds, but igainst those which sometimes occur, as thunder storms, hurricanes and cyclones, where the direction from which they may come is uncertain and purely accidental and cannot be determined by any rule protection can hardly be given. Those species of woods; where the roots run near the surface and which do not possess a tap root, such as Spruce, Fir and the like, should never be so exposed to receive the direct force of these winds. To avoid this thereshould always be planted on the boundries of forests several rows of such trees as drive a good tap root, to break their force to a considerable extent and at least to render the damage much less than it would be without this protection. The recommendation for preserving forests from the attacks of insects by mixing Evergreen with deciduous trees will work well as a preventative against harm being done by heavy winds. 5. Damage by Snow. Young, or middle aged Pine or Spruce forests,, especially when too much crowded, suffer mostly from snow. The damage is done by its pressing upon and breaking down their tops and branches. This may be successfully prevented by thinning out the young trees or planting at places where heavy snowfalls are of frequent occurence, so that the branches, being further apart, may not offer to the snow so large an aera upon which to settle. 6. Damages by Water. Damage is done both by standing or stagnant water, and also by running water. Standing water harms the forest by spoiling the soil and rendering it unfit for the growth of trees, making it sour and converting it into swamps, producing by evaporation, low temperature in its vicinity, and occasioning late and early frosts Drainage is the only remedy in such places or filling up, so as to get surface drain- age. Running water does harm in many ways. 1. By washing away the soil and uprooting the trees. 2. By covering the ground with sand .and stones during the period of an overflow. 3. By keeping the trees too long under water at such a time and thereby killing them. 4. By freezing over, after a thaw has occasioned it to rise around the trees, and upon falling, leaving ice adhering to them to injure the young wood or perhaps destroy them entirely. 5. By floating ice. The forester may guard against those evils in the following manner: The banks of rivers must be kept well lined with deciduous trees, which should be cut before their weight becomes too great, as otherwise they will fall into the water doing at the same time great damage by tearing and loosening much soil, and stopping the free flow of the water. Willows and common Alders are the trees best adapted to this purpose. The beds of rivers must be kept unobstructed. All obstacles to the free flow of the water removed, and the crooked places straightened. Dams must be built in places where caves threaten to stop the water. It must also be borne in mind that places subject to overflow should not be seeded, but planted with trees. Where floating ice is liable to do damage it is advisable to leave some wood standing a few rods from the banks to keep it within narrow limits. In these places only cut; down the larger trees and leave the smallest standing. CHAPTER XVIII. ROTATION OF SPECIES IN FORESTS. Wet and dry places, high mountains and level prairies, cold and warm climates and the difference in soil, furnish conditions under which certain species of plants thrive best, and for this reason often distinct and sharp lines between territories are abounding with certain kinds of trees. It is therefore the task of the forester to give to each tree its proper place, thus following the example set by nature in its distribution of sylvan growth. Agriculture and horticulture both teach us that crops of the same kind cannot be profitably raised upon the same land during successive seasons, and long ago the rule was adopted by the practical gardner not to plant the same varieties in the same places two years in succession. In the same way we find that notwithstanding, the best of care may be given to the existing kinds of trees, they will after a time, begin to lose their vigor, while new species springing up among them will do well. This change is usually from deciduous trees to Evergreens, or the reverse. It must be considered as a hint of nature that a rotation or change from one species to some other is a necessity and as profitable in the case of the forest as that of the cultivated field. With the forests, the periods between the making of such changes are long in proportion as the time before trees arrive at maturity is long, as compared with that between the planting and ripening of field crops. The length of time before the change is necessary, does not in the least degree prove the falsity that after a -- -- time it may be after the lapse or many generations a change of species is required. It has been noted in Prance, that a forest reproduces itself with a dif- ferent growth within four hundred years. In our own country, it is seen that, where Pines and Spruces are cut down, their places are taken by deciduous trees, but as to how far the necessity exists for a change is not thereby certainly proven, but still it is quite certain that this is a signal given by nature as to what should be done. --66-- CHAPTER XIX. THE HARVEST. The farmer harvests his field crops when ripe and is not in doubt in regard to the proper time, but in the case of the forests it is neither so easy to determine when the right time has arrived, nor at what time it is the most profitable to cut down our wood or timber for the market. The time for harvesting forest trees is when their annual growth or gain reaches the average growth or material gain. For example, suppose the last years growth has been 1 J cubic feet per tree and the whole tree measures 50 cubic feet at the age of fifty years, it is plain that the last years growth was far above the average yearly growth, and that to cut that forest down would entail a great loss. It may be further said that if the average and the annual growth are equal it is better to wait a few years be- fore harvesting, or so long as the annual growth may come up to the average. The next point as to when to cut the forest is the requirements and conditions of the markets. If logs of a certain dimension are required, for which a much higher price is offered per cubic foot than for those of less size, it may be expedient' to allow the trees to remain stanfling until they arrive at the required dimension, even if their yearly increase is a little be- low the average growth they attained in the past, since the higher prices received for the timber will more than compensate for the loss of gain in growth. Observing the growth of the forest from year to year it is easy to A find the yearly gain of trees above or below the average. very sure sio-n. of maturity is that the tree tops are beginning to round off and the foliao-e to grow thin. An experienced forester can determine whether a forest has reached maturity at a distance from it of five miles: To discover the annual growth of a tree without first cutting it down is a matter which requires skill and mathematical knowledge. It may how- --37-- ever be determined in the following manner : Cut with a chisel from the tree a portion of the wood, leaving the place cut in the shape of a right angled triangle, sitting upon its base. Upon further smoothing base with the chisel, count and measure the rings annually formed around the axis of the tree. The thickness of these will show whether the yearly growth is increasing or deminishing, and from this knowledge in regard to single trees especially if selected from an acre several of average size and make the cuts on both sides of them, at the same time counting the trees on the acre, learn the annual increse of material on each acre. It can be easily seen that these measurements cannot be made by a carpenters scale ; to do the work properly a magnifying glass is required. Care must be taken not to get deceived in regard to the annual growth by the sometimes indistinct boundaries of the rings. The formation of these rings yearly may be thus explained : (The well known fact that the annual growth takes place between the bark and the growth of former years, and that the bark also has a yearly growth has no moment in the explanation.) In Spring the warmth of the sun awakens the tree to new life, the sap rises and consequently vegetation is more rapid than at any other period of the year. The sap flowing through the tree and mingling with the reserve of nourishing material secreted in the pores during the last years growth to give it a fresh start before the leaves have formed, causes the rajnd forming of new cells adjoining those formed during the last autumn. These owing to its more rapid growth are larger and more porous than those formed at that period. The wood therefore must show a difference in texture on the limits of each years growth, and hence the amount of gain is easily seen. But sometimes at the end of July or the beginning of August the rising sap takes another lively start, causing another more rapid growth to the tree and forming other cells out of proportion with those formed either in the Spring or in the latter part of the year, and which may by the inexperienced be taken as another annual limit. On this account a careful scrutiny is required to prevent any mistake being made. It may also happen that drought may set in and stop all growth after which drenching rain may give a new start to vegetation. But this can eesily be determined in the annual rings. CHAPTER XX. THE FUTURE OF THE SOUTHERN FORESTS. On the question: "How long the great forests of the South, more es- pecially the most valuable portion, the long-lived pine, last?" the author- ities differ. Recent writers estimate that at the present rate of con- sumption, the Pine supply in Texas will last 250 years; in Louisana, 100 years; in Mississippi, 150 years; in Alabama, 90 years; in Georgia, 80 years; in Florida, 30 years; in Arkansas, 300 years, and in South Car- olina, 50 years. Dr. Mohr estimates that in 1880, 200,000,000 feet of lumber found outlet at Peusacola, 60,000,000 feet at Moline ; 60,000,000 feed at Tas- cagaula; 13,000,000 at New Orleans; 36,000,000 feet from Pearl River at & Bay St. Louis; 12,000,0.00 feet by the New Orleans Chicago railroad & and 12,000,000 feet by the Louisville Nashville railroad. This lumber came from the states of Forida, Mississippi, Alabama, and involved the depletion of a little over 200 square miles of forests in a single year. In every state in the South, State Forestry associations should be organized. These would serve the purpose of similar societies in the North- ern states in encouraging the growth and preservation of forest trees, with the additional advantage of advertising the forest resources of the south. CHAPTER XXI. PRUNNING OP TREES. Trees, in their natural and undisturbed state which have full room for growth, the proportion between roots and branches is well balanced and developed, but in taking one up, however careful the work may be done, this proportion is more or less changed, and generally confined more to the roots than the branches. It then becomes necessary to restore them. In prunning a tree, keep the sun from shining upon the roots, inspect them and compare them with the branches, and observe how much they have been broken or torn, proceed to cut off all upon which any wounds or bruises are found in the souod wood above the injured part. The cut must be made sloping and on the under side*of the wood, so that it cannot be seen, when the tree is set upright, and will sit directly upon the soil after the tree is planted. The slanting or sloping cut gives more area to the formation of callous, out of which the roots develop. As the callous forms between the bark and wood and the roots grow right out of that into the ground, they would have to grow upwards first, if the cut was on the upper side of the root, and then turn and take their natural downward course. In prunning roots as well as tops or branches, be very careful not to loosen the bark, since if this is done, no callous can form, and of the branches, a portion will die. If any cut is made with the saw, immediately smooth it with the knife, always cutting from the back toward the center, or axis of the root or branch. Small, young trees need no prunning of either roots or tops, except of such as have a tap root and which are intended to set out as soon as they have reached the required size. After several transplantings to the nursery cut off this root when they are two or three years old, to make the final planting more easily, which, were this not done, could only be accomplish- --70-- ed with the greatest difficulty. Such trees will aferwards send their roots deep into the earth, to take the place of the missing top root ana continue to grow well. To this species belong the Oak, Hickory, etc., and if these are transplanted while very young, the top root need not be disturbed. In prunning always cut the branches so that there may be left a sleep- ing butt, which can easily be detected, to replace the branch removed. Reference must also be had to the position of the bud, that the branch growing from it may take such a direction as to improve the form of the tree. Of all branches which cross or injure each other, the inferior must be removed, and in cases where two of equal size, growing from a third main branch are crossing each other, cut off that which will injure the shape of the crown the least by its removal. After once beginning to prune in this manner, a person having a good eye and good judgement will soon learn to di-tinguish detects in the shape and how to remedy them. If a tree has two leaders which form a fork, cut off the inferior to avoid the splitting of the tree in future. Never let suckers grow up from the bottom of the tree, which injures or kills the tree. In this way we may cut off two-thirds of the branches and still pre- serve the original shape of the crown, which should be our chief aim. CHAPTER XXII. PLANTING OP TREES IN CITIES. The observer of American Cities and Villages will notice the good taste which many of our citizens possess in decorating the streets and avenues with ornamental and shade trees, and in surrounding their residences with emerald green turt and beautiful flowers. In fact within the limits of some cities are portions which more resemble a park than a city, and if any complaint is to be made or fault found, it is that there is in many cases, if anything too much shade and the trees too much crowded to permit their development to masterpieces of nature. It is true that although many thousands of trees are planted every year the work is too often done by incompetent persons, or those having it done are careless or not able at the proper time for planting to find those who are competent to perform it. People also often expect to get good trees for half the money which they are worth, or even if they do obtain good sound trees and plant them at the right time and in the proper manner, take such miserable care of them that they shortly die. To plant and raise trees successfully requires knowledge and practical experience, the same as any other business, and as shade trees are already growing to some extent along the streets and avenues of nearly all our cities and villages, it is an easy matter to tell what species to make use of for additional planting in these places, as the selection should be made from those which are doing the best in neighboring localities. In making the selection of a kind for a certain street or avenue, take such as are growing upon it, as nothing gives a more beautiful aspect to the street than rows of trees on both sides, uniform in appearance. In case there are no trees to serve as a guide, the following species may be chosen as being the hardiest and best fitted for any place when well cared for. A.mt/r ican Linden, American and European White Elm, Ash, White --72-- and Yellow, Hard Maple, Norway and Soft Maple, Box Elder and Hack- berry. These trees are the only kinds to use in cold climates, for the purpose of lining streets and avenues. If forced to draw our supply from the �wild woods or forests, our aim must be to select young trees which will answer to the following points. 1. No tree should be selected which has been oppressed or much shaded by the others. 2. No tree which has equal thickness at the bottom and first branches. 3. The top must be proportioned to the thickness of the trunk. 4. In heavy clay soil, grown trees have few small roots and should be avoided if possible. 5. Trees with moss on their trunks and branches are suspicions and should find no grace in the eyes of the selector. 6. Also should trees with two equal thick tops be looked upon as unfit for our purpose. But trees with a healthy appearance, well proportioned from bottom to top and a uniform annual growth, are good trees to select, and if by tak- ing them up, the roots are proportioned to the tops and the size of the tree, they are worthy of painstaking with them. For warmer climates and the eastern states, select Silver Maple, Buck- eye or common Chestnut, Honey Locust, Magnolia or Cucumber and Um- brella tree, Sycamore or Button Ball and the Catalpa or Indian Bean. All these will not flourish in the same soils, but the preferences of the most important have already been explained in the preceding pages. Trees with a healthy appearance, well proportioned from bottom to top and showing a good uniform annual growth, are the proper kinds to select. Trees so chosen should be removed from their places with the ut- most care and the exercise of the best of judgment. The digging around the roots should be done at such a distance from the tree as to be beyond their ends, so that after prunning they may be left unbruised and without A wounds. ball of earth should be left around them and the whole tree or ball undermined. To get this seperated from the roots, bend the tree from one side to the other, so as to press it off and clear away such as is then left, with the hands. To get rid of it in this way, drive into the bal 1, perpendicularly, sharp, wooden stakes and pull them forward from the tree, thereby taking away the earth without injuring the roots, as this will give way before the stakes, and the stakes will break sooner than the roots. In transplanting trees from a long distance, it is best to have all, or nearly all the earth removed, as otherwise its weight resting on the bottom of the wagon may cause the breaking of the roots. Avoid the bruising of the bark, which will do a great, though perhaps --73-- not visible injury, to the tree. In moving trees upon a wagon, arrange their roots well, filling in between and around them with earth until they are covered, and if it is practicable, setting them upright and covering the roots. This will prevent friction of the trunks with the wagon. The digging of the holes depends upon the quality of the soil. The poorer it is the larger and deeper they must be dug, and when it does not interfere with travel, they should be made in the previous autumn, so as to admit of the favorable action of the frost upon the excavated soil. For a tree two or three inches in diameter, a hole six feet in diameter and two feet deep is required, and in very poor soil it is better to make the diam- eter eight feet. If the earth taken out is not to be used again in the plant- ing, we must haul in, wherever the holes are six feet in diameter, two and one-tenth cubic yards, and when eight feet, three and three-fourths cubic yards for each. As the space between the sidewalk and the street proper, is, in cities, not of sufficient width to allow of the above given diameter, make the length of the hole greater than the width, resting assured that the roots will always grow in the direction of the good soil. 74-- CHAPTER XXIII. PLANTING OF LARGE TREES AND TRANSPLANTING. Planting of trees, if carlessly done, all our previous painstaking has been in vain. In doing this work, three persons are required; one to hold the tree, one to shovel in the soil, and the third to do the planting itself. After filling the hole to the proper height with good soil, causing a little hill in the center as a stool for thetre.', set it upon this so as not to be hollow under the trunk after planted. While one man is holding the tree the planter takes hold of the roots, and being supplied by the third man with fine soil, places each seperately, according to its natural situation and place of growth, the lowest at the bottom and the highest at the top, thereby dividing and distributing them over the whole place around the trunk, taking good care of the fibre rootlets, packing the earth around each and pushing the earth under the trunk, to make sure no hollow is left there. Great care must be taken during this process to keep the tree in a verticle position, as bending it to either side, when once planted, will move the roots from their proper place. After the planting is completed, the tops of the on et, or place where the