Flower Structure and Parts

the vertical section of the flower, showing the sterile sporophylls (petals and sepals), the microsporophylls (stamens) and the macrosporophylls (pistil) with the macrosporangia (ovules) inclosed; careful sections through the gynoecium will usually show the teguments of the macrosporangium and often the macrospore with its prothallium. (f. 211, p. 312.) 74 MANUAL OF BOTANY Describe the flower in full with especial reference to the number and position of the flower parts and fix it in mind as the type of the lily-like flowers, 323. Contrast the sporophyte and gametophyte with preceding ones. Where does this plant grow? Are there any indications of this in its structure? ORDER GLUMALES FAMILY GRAMINACEAE 38. Poa pratensis: make a sketch of the whole sporophyte; make a careful sketch of the spikelet, showing the microsporophylls and of a single floret, showing the macrosporophyll. Contrast the floret with the flower of Erythronium, showing what modifications have occurred and what parts have been dropped out. In both the sedges and grasses, the petals and sepals are reduced to scales or bristles, or are lacking. The sedges, Cyperaceae, differ from the grasses in having the floret supported by a single scale in place of two. Subclass Dicotyledones ORDER THALAMIFLORALES Suborder Ranales family ranunculaceae 39. Ranunculus ahortivus (Anemone caroliniana, Pulsatilla hirsutissima) : make a sketch of the sporophyte; make a drawing of the flower showing the arrangement of the parts. Cut a vertical section of the flower and note the position of STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 75 the different parts with reference to the receptacle. What differences in the structure of the stem between Monocotyledons and Dicotyledons? What difference in the plan of the flower? What feat- ures of this flower indicate its low position in the line of development? ORDER CALYCIFLORALES SUBORDEB ROSALES FAMILY KOSACEAE 40. Primus americana: draw a cluster of the flowers, and also the vertical section of a single flower, with especial reference to the position of the stamens and the cavity of the macrosporophyll. Describe the flower structure in full and compare it with that of Ranunculus. Why is it higher or more advanced than Ranunculus? FAMILY PAPILIONACEAE 41. Astragalus crassicarpus : draw a portion of the plant showing the leaves and flower cluster ; also a single flower in front and side view ; remove the petals, noting their position and shape and draw the column of microsporophylls and the tip of the macrosporophyll. What is the pod like? De- scribe the flower structure in full? How does it differ from that of Prunus? Distinguish an actinomorphic from a zygomorphic flower? Which is the higher structure? 76 MANUAL OP BOTANY FAMILY SAXITBAGACEAE 42. Rihes gracile (Ribes aureum) : draw a flower cluster with leaves; also a single flower and a cross-section showing the structure of the macrosporophyll. Describe the flower and compare it with Astrag- alus and Prunus? Why is it higher? ORDER BICARPELLALES Suborder Polemoniales family boraginaceae 43. Lithospermum angustifolium ( Lithospermum hirtum) : make a careful sketch of the sporophyte; draw a single flower showing the calyx and corolla and also a vertical section with especial reference to the micro- and macrosporo- phylls. Describe the flower structure in full and compare it with that of Ranunculus. ORDER INFERALES Suborder Rubiales FAMILY BUBIACEAE 44. Galium aparine: make a sketch of the sporophyte; draw a single flower and also a fruit, the latter in cross-section. Describe the structure of the flower and com- pare it with that of Ribes. Suborder Asteralus FAMILY COMPOSITAE 45. Senecio plattensis: sketch the sporophyte and draw a single flower cluster or head enlarged two STRUCTURE AND CLASSIFICATION 77 or three times ; draw both a disk and a ray floret enlarged several times. Describe the structure of the head and of both sorts of florets. Compare the latter with the flowers of Galium. What has become of the calyx? What is the purpose of the pappus? 46. Taraxacum taraxacum (Nothocalais cuspidata) : draw a head in front view and also in vertical section ; draw a floret from the edge and from the center of the disk. Compare the structure of the head with that of Senecio. Compare the florets of both also. Contrast in detail Ranunculus with Taraxacum in regard to flower structure. Point out all the particulars in which the latter is the higher. PHYTOGEOGRAPHY Select a readily accessible portion of the vicinitT, which manifests a large degree of diversitT in the yegetative covering. Draw a map of this area on the scale of ten inches to the mile, showing section lines, roads, streams, ponds, swamps, hills, etc. Indicate provisionallT the areas covered by the different sorts of vegetation, woodland, meadow, swamp, pond, weed patches, cultivated fields, groves, orchards, etc. Identify the flowers in each formation as they ap- pear in the spring. Where there is not sufficient time to work them all, determine the most important or abundant. It will soon be seen that, while trees are the characteristic plants of woodlands, grasses of meadows and prairies, etc., other plants are especially typical of such formations on account of their abundance or prominence. These are the principal species of the formation, while the less abundant or less important ones are secondary species. Determine for those formations which are early enough the fundamental species or facies, the principal species, and as many of the secondary species as possible. List the species of each formation, arranging the facies, principal species, etc., according to the time of their flowering. (Chapter V. Phytogeography of Nebraska. Determine which areas of the localitv studied are PHYTOGEOGRAPHY 79 hjdrophjtic, which mesophytic, and which xero- phjtic. Point out which physical factors are at work in all of them, influencing the vegetation which grows there, and in what way certain of these factors differ in the different situations. Note what structural modifications are common to each group, and try to connect these with the physical conditions peculiar to the situation. Note that the mesophytes may be woodland plants, grassland plants, or weeds. Make a list of hydrophytes, hylophytes, poophytes, cledo- phytes, and xerophytes, arranging them in so far as possible according to the degree to which they have become modified in response to the controlling con- ditions in their environment. ( Chapter IV. Arrange the species of each formation according to their vegetation form, and point out the connection between the typical structure, which determines the vegetation form, and the habitat. (Chapter III.) Indicate upon the topographical map the various plant formations of the vegetative covering either by shading with conventional signs or, better, by colors. Transition areas in which two formations mingle may be indicated by mingling both signs, or by using A a shade intermediate between the two colors. neat legend should be attached, giving the name and facies of each formation opposite its sign or color. SYNOPSIS OF THE LAEGER GROUPS OF THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM -- Branch I. Protophyta. Protopliytes Water Slimes -- Class. Schizophyceae. Fission Algae -- Order. Cystiphoreae. -- Fam. Chroococcoceae. Gloeocapsa arenaria. -- Order. Nematogeneae. -- Fam. Nostocaceae. Nostoc commune. -- Fam. Oscillatoriaceae. Oscillatoria tenuis. -- Fam. Scytonemataceae. Scytonema cinereum. -- Fam. Rivulariaceae. Gloeotrichia pisum. -- Fam. Bacteriaceae. Bacillus subtilis. Spiril- lum undula. -- Branch II. Phycophyta. Phycophytes Spore Tangles -- Class. Chlorophyceae. Green Algae -- Order. Protococcoideae. -- Fam. Pleurococcaceae. Protococcus viridis, Scenedesmus obliquus. -- Order. Conjugatae. -- Fam. Desmidiaceae. Closterium lanceolatum. -- Fam. Bacillariaceae. Navicula viridis. -- Fam. Zygnemaceae. Spirogyra nitida. -- Fam, Mucoraceae. Ascophora mucedo. SYNOPSIS 81 -- Order. Siphoneae. -- Fam. Vaucheriaceae. Vaucheria hamata. -- Fam. Peronosporaceae. Peronospora parasit- ica. -- Order. Confervoideae. -- Fam, Ulotrichiaceae. -- Fam. Oedogoniaceae. Microspora abbreviata. Oedogonium nodulosum. -- Class. Phaeophyceae. Brown Algae -- Order. Phaeosporeae. -- Fam. Ectocarpaceae. Ectocarpus litoralis. -- Order. Fucoideae. -- Fam. Fucaceae. Fucus fastigiatus. -- Branch III. Carpophyta. Carpophytes Fruit Tangles -- Class. Rhodophyceae. Red Seaweeds -- Order Florideae. -- Fam. Rhodomelaceae. Polysiphonia fastigiata. -- Class. Ascomycetes. Sac-Fungi -- Order. Perisporiaceae. Simple Sac-Fungi. -- Fam. Erysipheae. Uncinula salicis. -- Ord er. Tuberales. -- Fam. Tuberaceae. Tuber melanosporum. -- Order. Pyrenomycetales. Black Fungi. -- Fam. Hysteriaceae. Hysterographium fraxini. -- Order. Discomycetales. Cup Fungi. -- Fam. Pezizaceae. Sepultaria scutellata. -- Fam. Parmeliaceae. Pliyscia stellaris. 82 MANUAL OF BOTANY -- Order. Uredinales. Busts. -- Fam. Uredinaceae. Puccinia phragmitis. -- Order. Ustilaginales. Smuts. -- Fam. Ustilaginaceae. Ustilago maydis. -- Class. Basidiomycetaceae. Higher Fungi -- Order. Gasteromycetales. Puff-balls, etc. -- Fam. Lycoperdaceae. Lycoperdon gemmatum. -- Order. Hymenomycetales. Toadstools, etc. -- Fam. Agaricaceae. Agaricus campestris. -- Class. Charophyceae. Stoneworts -- Order. Charales. -- Fam. Characeae. Nitella opaca. -- Branch IV. Bryophyta. Bryophytes Mossworts -- Class. Hepaticae. Liverworts -- Order. Marchantiales. -- Fam. Marchantiaceae. Marchantia polymor- pha. -- Class. Muscineae. -- Order. Bryales. -- Fam. Physcomitriaceae. Mosses Funaria hygromet- rica. -- Branch V. Pteridophyta. Pteridophytes Fernworts -- Class. Equisetineae. Joint Rushes SYNOPSIS 83 -- Order. Equisetales. -- Fam. Equisetaceae. Equisetum arvense. -- Class, Pilicineae. Ferns -- Order. Filicales. True Ferns. -- Fam. Polypodiaceae. Dryopteris marginata. -- Class. Lycopodineae. Lycopods -- Order. Selaginellales. Little Olub-mosses. -- Fam. Selaginellaceae. Selaginella rupestris. -- Branch VI. Anthophyta. Anthophytes Flowering Plants -- Class. Gymnospermae. Gymnosperms -- Order. Coniferae. Conifers. -- Fam. Pinaceae. Pinus austriaca. -- Class. Angiospermae. Angiosperms -- Subclass. Monocotyledones. Monocotyledons -- Order. Coronariales. Lilies. -- Fam. Liliaceae. Erythronium albidum. -- Order. Glumales. Grasses. -- Fam. Graminaceae. Poa pratensis. -- Subclass. Dicotyledones. Dicotyledons -- Order. Thalamiflorales. Torals. -- Sub-order. Ranales. -- Fam. Ranunculaceae. Ranunculus abortivus. -- Order. Calyciflorales. Calycals. -- Sub-order. Rosales. -- Fam. Rosaceae. Prunus americana. 84 MANUAL OF BOTAXY -- Fain. Papilionaceae. Astragalus crassicarpui. -- Fajn. Saxifragaceae. Kibes gracile. -- Order. Bicarpellales. -- Sub-order. Polemoniales. -- Fam. Boraginaceae. Lithospermnin angnsti- folium. -- Order. Inferales. -- Sub-order. Rubiales. -- Fam. Rubiaceae. Gralinm aparine. -- Sub-order. Asterales. -- -- Fam. Compositae. Senecio plattensis. Tarax- acum taraxacum. PHYSIOLOGY Experiment 1 -- -- Germinate several seeds corn, beans, peas by placing same between folds of moist blotting paper. Or, place the seeds on cotton screen cloth, covering the top of a wide-mouthed bottle. This will allow the water in the bottle to just come into contact with seeds. The whole may be covered with a bell jar or left exposed to ordinary air of a room. Temperature 21� to 23� C. The apparatus thus described may be called the germinator. Experiment 2 -- Prepare the following Nutrient Solution or Cul- ture Solution Distilled water (H2O) 1000 cc. Potassium nitrate (KNO3) Magnesium sulphate (MgSOi) 1 gram 0.5 gram Calcium sulphate (CaS04) Calcium phosphate Cas (P04)2 0.5 gram 0.5 gram Add to this a trace of some iron salt, Fe 2 CI e (Ferric chlorid) or FeSO* (Ferrous sulphate). Keep solution in dark. Aerate occasionally during culture experiment. -- : 86 M-^XrAL OF BOTAXY ExPERi:y:�XT 3 Fill ber^.ker or jar with nufrltnf so^-.-.'^ion. Cover with cork or pasteboard which has been slit: through opening pass roots, or slip of some plant. Arrange another beaker or jar similarly, except nil with dis- t"-:' irrttr instead of nutrient solution. Observe vMh -- gi"': ".'tbi of two slips or plants from day to day. Experiment seedlings Are results simUar? EXPEEIMENT 4 Grow sets of sec'dlings under the four following conditions (a) Distnied water. (h) Nutrient soiution 'without iron't. (c) Nutrient solution i with iron). (dj In soil. Compare results. Do not repeat (a) and (c) if previ^iusly performed. ExPEEiMEXT 5. AesC'?.?t::x of Mineeal5 Which AEE IXSuLUELE IX H:0 (a) Take seedlings grc'wn in germinator and touch the moist root-tips to blue litmtis paper. The paper becomes red in color showing presence of acids in the rO':'t-rip. I'l..^ u;. ' b 'i.'i::b:c certain constituents of soil ; vhich are : : ' .liJe in H-i 0. fhj Grow a seedling in soil previously placed on a polished lit o' '-C-'ble. After a few weeks wash off and examine for "root tracks." Acid of roots will have eaten line tracks into surface of marble. physiology 87 Experiment 6. Absorption Place leaves of different varieties, in 5 per cent solu- tion of common salt. The entire blade should be im- mersed, but the petioles should project out of the solution. Arrange two sets of leaves; one in salt solution, the other in pure water. After several hours examine. Which are normal and which have lost their turgidity? Experiment 7 Cut several pieces of beet of equal size and about 5 mm. in thickness. Immerse a few slices each, in water, in salt solution, and in sugar solution. At first slices will be rigid. After one or two hours ex- Why amine slices. Notice difference in rigidity. is this? Which solution has the greatest softening effect? Explain. Wash the slices in salt solution and place in dish of pure water. Examine after a few hours. What effect? Explain. Experiment 8 To some cells of Spirogyra under microscope add a KOH little (Potassium hydrate) . Potassium hydrate induces in the cell the power of imbibing water to greater extent than ordinarily. Try same with H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid). Note results. Try same with 5 per cent solution of common salt (NaCl). After 5 minutes, flow pure water under the cover glass and again notice effect. ---- 88 manual of botany Experiment 9. Water from Soil Examine under loio power of microscope some fine root hairs of corn seedlings grown in earth. Fine particles of earth will be seen clinging to root hairs. Plants take water from soil which is merely moist. Experiment 10. The Ascending Current Evaporate on a cover glass, a little H2O obtained by cutting stem of some herbaceous plant. Is the H2O pure? Heat the residue. Does it carbonize? What does this indicate about the so-called sap? Experiment 11 Determine percentage of water in grass, clover, etc. -- Weigh accurately a small bunch of grass about a handful. Dry for twenty-four hours in drying oven. Reweigh and determine actual loss of weight. Per- centage of loss? Experiment 12 Cut near the ground a stem of sunflower, dahlia, Indian corn, or any strongly growing herbaceous plant. Dry cut end with blotting paper and then ex- amine with hand lens. Where do you notice H2O? Is it exuding from cut ends of fibrovascular bundles? How much water would escape in this way in one day? Estimate. Look up fibrovascular bundles in Bessey or Bergen. Experiment 13 Place the freshly cut ends of sunflower shoots, corn stems, Impatiens or Caladium in a solution of eosin. PHYSIOLOGY 89 fuchsin, or red ink. After a few hours make crosssections of the various stems and examine for the red areas. How are they arranged? Cut longitudinally through one of these areas. Try various kinds of stems. Examine a cross-section of one of the stems with the microscope, low power. Are the red areas of especially constructed cells? What are the fibro- vascular bundles? Experiment 14 (To be performed in spring or fall when leafy twigs or branches are abundant). -- Take a branch of woody plant remove bark en- H tirely from stem for J-inch. Place in 2 O and notice leaves both above and below the injury. Is there a perceptible difference in freshness? With another twig remove ^-inch of wood without injuring bark more than necessary. Compare leaves above and below the injury when the twig is placed in H2O. Experiment 15. Transpiration Study morphology of Stomata on leaves. Can you conclude that leaves are special organs of transpiration? Exp. Weigh a plant. Then allow a period of rapid evaporation from leaves (covering mouth of pot with sheet rubber). Keweigh after the period and note difference. 90 MANUAL OF BOTANY Experiment 16 Fit the stem of a growing shoot into end of glass tube by means of a cork. Fill tube with H2 O and place bottom end in beaker of colored water or mercury. The transpiring shoot produces what results? Experiment 17 Take two geranium leaves, varnish one on both sides. Place side by side on table in laboratory. What effect? Which wilts? What have you pre- served by varnishing the one leaf? Experiment 18 Fit a growing shoot through a cork into one arm U of a tube. Fill tube with water. From the other arm of the tube lead out a J-inch glass tube hori- zontally. This should contain water, and its flow towards the arm can be noted as indicative of amount of transpiration. Cf. MacDougal's "Plant Physiology," p. 23. Fig. 20. b Apparatus for estimation of transpiration. (Mangin.) The water recedes from a toward d� ^ PHYSIOLOGY 91 Experiment 19. Living Plants able to Control Transpiration Take two sprigs of clover, immerse one in boiling water to kill it, and immerse the other in cold water so that the leaves are well wetted. Lay both plants on table and notice results in drying. Which is surface-dry the sooner? Which entirely dry? Did living plant hold moisture longer than dead plant? Experiment 20 Fit a growing shoot into a cork, which when placed in one end of a "U" tube will render the whole water-tight. Fill this end of the tube with water; insert the cork. Pour mercury into other arm of tube until it stands one inch high in both arms. After a time the mercury will rise in the first arm. Why? Does this indicate lifting power? Experiment 21 Take several leaves, geranium Lifting power aftranspira- and Others, and place their tictt. (After Oels.) water; t� mercury. a, ^petioles in lon�g p^ill bottles con- taining H2 O, closing the mouth of the bottle with softened wax or paraffin. Notice level of water in bottles after 12 hours ; after 24 hours, etc. Weigh these bottles at intervals of 6 hours. Record results. Conclusions? -- 92 MANUAL OF BOTANY Experiment 22. Metabolism Cover some water plants or green algae, in a glass jar, with a funnel filled with water. Invert a test tube filled with H2O over this funnel, so that mouth of tube is be- neath surface of water in jar. Bubbles rising from growing plants will collect in tube displacing H3O. What are they? When tube is filled, place thumb over the opening and remove. Insert a lighted taper. Conclusions? Note reaction given with Experiment 25. Experiment 23 Take a handful of peas and soak in warm water for 12 hours or in cold water for 24 hours. Drain off water and place peas in tall glass cylin- der. Cover the top as nearly air tight as possible and set aside for 12 hours. Now re- move the cover slightly and lower lighted taper into jar. If it is extinguished, it indi- cates a lack of oxygen. Lower spoonful of lime water. If the surface becomes covered with a film J, . this i. ndJi. catJ.es carVbon Cylinder containing germinating Peas. (Sachs.) PHYSIOLOGY 93 dioxid (CO2). Your conclusions? Peas in germination absorb what? Give off what? Experiment 24 Parasitic plants (fungi) have no chlorophyll. They do not make their own starch, nor assimilate CO 3. Examine under microscope the Dodder, for chlorophyll grains. Examine in like manner various fungi, as molds. Examine green leaves, under micro- scope, for chlorophyll. Experiment 25. Assimilation Burn a match. What is the resulting charred stick? Whence do plants derive this carbon? Is carbon present in air? In what form? Note carefully 6C02+5H20=C6HioOH-602. Starch Experiment 26. Schimper^s Method of testing FOR Presence of Starch A strong solution of chloral hydrate is made by taking 8 grams of chloral hydrate for every 5 cc. of water. To this solution is added a little of an alco- holic tincture of iodin. Threads of Spirogyra may be placed in this solution and in few minutes examined under microscope. The reaction will be distinctly seen. 94 MANUAL OF BOTANY �, Tropatolum leaf to which are attached two pieces of cork to prevent photosynthesis. (Detmer.) ^, same after removal of cork, treated with JodiiD Experiment 27 Cover a portion of a growing leaf with cork, as per figure. After some days, pluck leaf, remove cork, and immerse leaf in solution of iodin. What color is the -- strip covered by cork before and after immersion. A blue color would indicate starch. Explain results. Experiment 28 To two ounces of ground flaxseed add about 2 ozs. of ether. Allow to stand for 15 or 20 minutes and then allow ether to evaporate in draught. What remains? Where did it come from? Is starch the only product of plant activity? Name other products? -- PHYSIOLOGY 95 Experiment 29. Heat in Germination Fill a beaker i full with KOH strong solution of (Potassium hydrate). Into this place a funnel filled with soaked peas, taking care that the funnel does not come into contact with solution of KOH. A thermometer is inserted into the mass of peas, the Apparatus to demonstrate liberation of heat in respiration. ^spchsj whole covered by bell jar. KOH The is used to ab- sorb what gas given off in ^germination ? Comp^are temperature as indicated by thermometer in peas with temperature of outside air. Experiment 30 Place dry beans or peas in a temperature of about 70 � C. for 15 minutes. They will not be killed. Now thoroughly soak a few beans, and subject them to the same temperature for about the same length of time. Attempt to grow them after removal from oven. Will they grow? Conclusions. 96 MANUAL OF BOTANY -- Experiment 31. Growth To Mark Radicles With Ink Mount a few inches of fine thread in a needle holder. Allow insoluble India ink to soak into thread which has been stretched. By holding this inked thread taut and pressing down on the roots, a fine, even line may be obtained. Experiment 32 Germinate a bean, and when root-tip is about one inch in length, mark with India ink on the tip ten millimeter divisions. Al- low seedling to remain in culture 24 hours. Then re-examine. Notice position of millimeter marks. Transfer results accurately to plotting paper. Scale 1-5. Notice carefully in- crease in each zone. Try with various seedlings. Seedling' of Pea. (Sachs.) Showing zone of maximum growth. PHYSIOLOGY 97 -- Experiment 33. To Measure Growth in Length OF Plant -- Auxanometer. The thread fastened to top of plant to be observed is passed over a movable pulley, and held taut by a weight, which should not be so heavy as to strain the plant. To pulley is attached a slender pointer which is 20 times as long as the radius of the pulley, indicating growth 20 fold. Arrange so that pointer may indicate on a scale or that pointer may touch a clean sheet of paper which may be marked. Measure growth of potato plant or lily grown in a pot or box. Compare day growth with night growth. Lever auxanometer. (After Oels.) Z, lever; ^, balance-weight on lever; G, counterpoise to keep the string taut; f, string. -- 98 manual of botany Experiment 34 Fix pots containing growing shoots in unusual positions about the room. Observe carefully any change of direction taken by the growing parts of the plant. Experiment 35 Sprout a lima bean and allow to grow in one posi- tion until lateral roots are 15 to 20 cm. in length. Now invert, and allow to remain for 24 hours, or longer. Return to normal position and notice effect a day after the inversion. Draw the curve of the rootlets. Experiment 36 Arrange some bean seedlings around a disc of cork which can be rapidly rotated. Notice after a few hours the effect of centrifugal force upon rootlets. Has the centrifugal force overcome that of gravity? What is geotropism? -- Experiment 37. Irritability Contact^ Light^ etc. Obtain a cracker box and give the inside, including inside of cover, a coat of black paint. Nail cleats across boards of cover that it may be removed easily. Now cut an opening 3 inches in diameter in one end and attach a cylinder about 6 inches in length. When completed the affair will resemble a camera box. When cover is on, the cylinder opening should be the only place where light may enter. Experiment with various plants, allowing them PHYSIOLOGY 99 to remain in the box various lengths of time. Two days on the average is a good length of time. Note the tendency of the growing shoots to seek the light. Arrange a set of "stops" for the opening of the box, and experiment with reduced light. Do the growing plants bend toward the light? Experiment 38 Grow a "nasturtium" (Tropaeolum) in a window. Note the positions taken by the leaves with respect to the light. Experiment 39 All laboratories should have a sensitive plant. Mimosa pudica may be obtained from a florist. Cause temperature to rise around the plant. Notice loss of irritability. Cause temperature to fall. What result? Allow plant to dry. What result? Add water. What result? Note carefully irritability due to contact. LofC. ABSORPTION, TRANSFER, AND NUTRITION IN THE PLANT. iVitrates Sulphites p^,os|l^>�teS APPENDIX REMARKS 1. Give the experiments which require much prepa- ration to various pupils at the beginning of the course. 2. An effort has been put forth to make the glossary very complete. Refer constantly to this, and thus become familiar with terms employed. 3. In the part of the Manual devoted to physiology, use especially MacDougal, Bessey, and Bergen for reference. 4. It is urged upon the smaller high schools of the state that a beginning in laboratory botany is most essential, no matter how insignificant that beginning may be. The course outlined in the Manual is com- plete enough for the best equipped school in the state, and it is not intended that the high school carrying a light equipment shall attempt the complete course. 5. It is further urged that the laboratory "quiz'' method of instruction be largely employed. Let the teacher, instead of "lecturing" two or three times per week, go into the laboratory, and there "quiz" the pupils upon work actually in hand, at the same time bringing out related matters from the text book lesson. Converse freely with the students about the experiments or class work. 6. Attention is called to the outline of the vegetable -- kingdom prepared by Dr. Bessey. 7. Correspondence regarding the needs of your course in Botany is invited by the Department of Botany, The University of Nebraska, Lincoln. Upon request doubtful plants will be named or verified. GLOSSARY Abbreviata: L. abbreviatus, shortened. Abortivus: L. abortivus, abortive. Abundance: the quantity of a species measured by the numbei of individuals, -aceae: u. -aceus, pertaining to. Actinomorphic: Gr. dxTt?, aktis, aKTtvos, aktlios, ray; fiopi], morphe, form, radially symmetrical, as the flower of the rose. Adventitious: L. adventitius, strange, belonging to a remote vegetation, foreign. Agaricaceae: L. agaricus, mushroom. Agave: Gr. dyav6<s, agauos, noble, a genus of the Amaryllis family, Aianthous: Gr. alcov, aion, age, avOos, anthos, flower, continuing in bloom throughout the season. Albidum: L. albidus, white, -ales: L. alls, pertaining to. Aleurone: Gr. dXevpov, aleuron, fine meal, fine granules of al- buminoid or proteid found in seeds. Algae: L. alga, seaweed, the term applied to the green aquatic forms of the first three branches. Allogamy: Gr. aAAos, alios, another, ya/xo?, gamos, marriage, the fertilization of the pistil of one flower by the pollen or microspores of another; cross-fertilization. Americana: L. americanus, American. Androecium: Gr. av^p, aner, dvSpo's, andros, man, otKtbv, oikion, house, the microsporophylls or stamens taken collectively. Anemone: Gr. ave/xo?, anemos, wind. Angiospermae: Gr. ayyiov, angion, vessel, (nripfia, sperma, seed. Angustifoiium: L. angustus, narrow, folium, leaf. Antherid: Gr. dvOepiBLov, antheridion, blooming, the male organ, from Phycophyta to Pteridophyta, producing the anthero- zoids. GLOSSARY 103 Anthcrozoid: Gr. avOos, anthos, flower, ^oiov zoon, animal, ctSos, eidos, shape, the fertilizing body produced in the antherid. Apical cell: the tip cell of a filament or tissue, by the division of which growth is effected. Apothecium: Gr. diro, apo, away, OrJKrj, theke, case, box, the disk or cup-like spore-fruit of cup-fungi and lichens in which the hymenium is exposed. Appendage: the filament developed as a holdfast upon the perithecium of the Erysiphaceae. Aquiiina: L. aquilinus, pertaining to an eagle or standard. Archegone: Gr. apx^, arche, first, yoviov, gonion, offspring, the female reproductive organ of ferns and flowering plants. Arenaria: L. arenarius, sandy. Areole: L. dim. of area, ground, a small clear space, around the nucleolus. Asclepias: Gr. A(r>cA.7y7rio5, Asklepios, the Greek god of medicine, a genus of the Asclepiadaceae. Ascomycetales : Gr. a(TK6<s, askos, sack, /xvKr]<;, mykes, mushroom. Ascophora: Gr. do-Kos, askos, sack, opd, phora, bear. Ascus: Gr. da-K6<s, askos, sack, the spore sack of the Ascomycetes. Aspect: the tone or appearance of a formation during a particular period. Asterales: Gr. do-xTf/), aster, a star. Astragalus : Gr. daTrjp, aster, a star, ydXa, gala, milk. Aureum: L. aureus, golden. Austriaca: L. austriacus, southern. Autogamy: Gr. avros, autos, self, yd/Ao?, gamos, marriage, fertilization of a pistil by pollen of the same flower; self-fertiliza- tion. Bacillaria: L. baculus, rod. Bacillus: L. baculus, rod. Bacterium: Gr. paKTtjpLov, bakterion, staff, a one-celled Protophyte, either parasitic or saprcphytic. Balsamina: L. balsaminus, balsamic. Basidiomycetes: Gr. jSaa-tSiov, basidion, pedicel, ixvktjs, mykes, mushroom. 104 MANUAL OF BOTANY Basidium: Gr. ^ao-i'Stov, basidion, a little base, the swollen tip of a filament upon which the spores are borne in the puff-bails and mushrooms. Bast fibre; a long, thick-walled, usually lignified fiber, belonging to the sieve portion of the fibrovascular bundle. Begonia: named for Begon, an early governor of St. Domingo, a genus of Begoniaceae. Bergamot: (name of Italian town, Bergamo), the oil of the bergamot orange (Citrus medica). Beta: L. beta, beet, a genus of Chenopodiaceae. Bilateral: L. hi, two, latus, side, two-sided, in two directions. Bicarpellales: L. bi, two, carpus, fruit. Boraginaceae: ancient Latin name. Branch: a primary group of the vegetable kingdom, as Proto- phyta. Breathing pores: the openings through the epidermis into the soft tissue, by which gases are absorbed and given off. Bristle: a stiff hair, especially those of the sedge flower. Brood cups: the structures produced upon the thallus of liverworts, bearing buds or gemmae. Bryophyta : Gr. ^pvov, bryon, moss, cf)vr6v, phyton, plant. Bryum: Gr. /Spvov, bryon, moss. Bundle: a union of sieve and tracheary tissues to form supportive fibres or columns. Callose: L. caliosus, hard, a substance resembling cellulose, oc- curring upon the sieve plates during the resting period. Calyciflorales : Gr. koXv^, kalyx, cup, L. flos, flower. Calyx: Gr. KaXv|, kalyx, cup of a flower, the outer row of sterile sporophylls, called sepals. Cambium: L.L. cambium, exchange, the zone of meristematic tissue which causes the growth in thickness of stems and roots. Campestris: L. campestris, of the field. Canadensis: L. canadensis, Canadian. Capsule: L. capsula, from Gr. Kaij/a, kapsa, chest, the spore-bear- ing structure of