Travel and Woodsmanship

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The Craft of Moving Through Wild Country

The woods traveler needs more than the ability to read a map and follow a compass bearing. He needs a developed sense of the country — an awareness of weather, terrain, water, and the movements of wildlife that comes only from time spent in the open. This chapter covers the practical skills of moving safely and efficiently through wilderness.

Reading the Weather

In the backcountry, weather forecasts are unavailable. The woodsman must be his own meteorologist, reading the sky, the wind, and the behavior of the natural world to anticipate what is coming.

Cloud Signs:

Fair Weather Indicators:

High, thin cirrus clouds ("mare's tails") that remain thin and wispy
Small, puffy cumulus clouds that appear in the morning and dissipate in the afternoon
Clear sky at sunset with stars sharp and unblurred
Fog in the valleys at dawn that burns off by mid-morning (radiation fog — indicates clear skies and calm air)

Approaching Storm Indicators:

Cirrus clouds thickening and lowering, followed by a halo around the sun or moon — rain within 24–48 hours
Steadily falling barometric pressure (if you carry a barometer or altimeter — altimeters read pressure; a rising altitude reading on flat ground means falling pressure)
Wind shifting from west to south to east (in the Northern Hemisphere, storms approach from the west and south)
Clouds building and darkening throughout the day, especially towering cumulus that flatten into anvil shapes (thunderstorm developing)
Increasingly humid air — sticky skin, dew forming earlier in the evening
Birds flying low and becoming quiet before a storm
Insects becoming more aggressive (biting flies are worst before a rain)

The Barometric Rule: A rapid drop in pressure (or a sudden rise in your altimeter reading) means a storm is approaching fast. A slow, steady drop means an extended period of rain or snow. A rapid rise after a storm means clearing but possibly windy weather behind the front.

The Sky Is Your Weather Forecast

Kephart's cloud-reading system follows a reliable pattern that modern meteorology confirms. The sequence cirrus to cirrostratus (halo) to altostratus (thickening gray) to nimbostratus (rain) is the textbook progression of an approaching warm front — and it gives you 24-48 hours of advance warning. Learn to read this sequence and you will rarely be caught unprepared. Combined with wind direction and barometric trends, you can predict weather with surprising accuracy using nothing but your eyes and experience.

Crossing Water

Rivers and streams present some of the most serious hazards in wilderness travel. More backpackers are killed by water crossings than by any other wilderness hazard. The key principles:

Assessing a Crossing:

Never cross a stream that is above your knees in swift water. The force of moving water increases exponentially with depth. Knee-deep fast water can knock a strong man down. Waist-deep fast water can sweep anyone away.
Look for the widest, shallowest point. Rivers are generally deepest and fastest at narrow points, and shallowest and slowest at wide points.
Watch for hazards downstream. If you lose your footing, what is below? A calm pool (recoverable) or a rapid/waterfall/strainer (potentially fatal)?
Test with a pole. Before committing to a crossing, wade in slowly using a sturdy pole (at least 6 feet long) as a third point of contact. Plant the pole upstream and lean into the current.

Crossing Technique:

Unbuckle your pack's hip belt and sternum strap. If you fall, you must be able to shed the pack instantly — a waterlogged pack will drown you.
Face upstream and cross at a slight downstream angle (ferry angle)
Move your feet in a shuffle — never cross one foot over the other
Use a pole on the upstream side for stability
Move one point of contact at a time — pole, foot, foot

In a Group: Form a line perpendicular to the current, with the strongest member upstream. Link arms or hold pack straps. The upstream person breaks the current for those behind.

If You Fall In:

Shed your pack immediately
Roll onto your back with feet pointing downstream — this protects your head from rocks
Use your feet to fend off obstacles
Work diagonally toward shore using backstroke or side-swimming
Do NOT try to stand in fast water — your foot can become trapped between rocks (foot entrapment is one of the leading causes of drowning in rivers)

More Backpackers Die in Water Crossings Than Any Other Hazard

This is not an exaggeration — river crossings kill more wilderness travelers than bears, hypothermia, falls, or lightning. The danger is deceptive: water that looks calm may be moving fast, and water that looks shallow may conceal deep holes. Cold snowmelt rivers sap strength in minutes. Never cross alone if you can avoid it, never cross above your knees in fast water, and always unbuckle your pack before entering. If the crossing looks questionable, walk upstream or downstream until you find a safer point — even if it adds miles to your day. No campsite is worth dying for.

Dealing with Dangerous Animals

The likelihood of a dangerous animal encounter in North American wilderness is small. The likelihood of a fatal encounter is extremely small. Nevertheless, the backcountry traveler should understand the animals he may encounter and how to behave.

Black Bears:

Found throughout North America. Generally shy and avoid humans.
Prevention: Store food properly — hang it from a tree (10 feet high, 4 feet from the trunk) or use bear canisters. Keep a clean camp. Never cook or eat in your sleeping area.
If you encounter one: Make yourself appear large, speak firmly, and back away slowly. Do NOT run — this triggers a chase response. Black bears can be intimidated and usually will retreat.
If attacked by a black bear: Fight back aggressively. Hit the nose and eyes. Black bear attacks are predatory — playing dead does not work.

Grizzly Bears (Brown Bears):

Found in Alaska, western Canada, and the northern Rockies.
Prevention: Same food storage practices. Make noise on the trail to avoid surprising bears. Travel in groups. Carry bear spray (proven more effective than firearms for stopping charges).
If you encounter one: Speak calmly, make yourself visible, and back away slowly. Do NOT run. If the bear charges, stand your ground — many charges are bluffs. Deploy bear spray at 20–30 feet.
If attacked by a grizzly (defensive attack — surprising the bear): Play dead. Lie face-down with your hands over the back of your neck and your legs spread to resist being flipped. Remain still until the bear leaves.
If attacked by a grizzly (predatory — stalking you): Fight back with everything you have.

Bear Spray Works Better Than Guns

Multiple peer-reviewed studies confirm that bear spray is more effective than firearms at stopping bear charges. Bear spray stopped aggressive bears in 92% of cases with no injuries, while firearms stopped charges only 67% of the time. The reason is simple: under extreme stress, most people cannot aim a firearm precisely at a charging animal — but bear spray creates a 30-foot expanding cloud that does not require precise aim. Carry it on your hip or chest strap where you can deploy it in two seconds, not buried in your pack.

Mountain Lions (Cougars):

Found in the western U.S., rarely encountered.
If you encounter one: Do NOT run. Face the animal, make yourself appear large (raise arms, open jacket), speak loudly, and back away slowly. Throw rocks and sticks if it approaches.
If attacked: Fight back. Mountain lion attacks are predatory; playing dead is ineffective. Target the face and eyes.

Snakes:

Venomous snakes in North America: rattlesnakes, copperheads, cottonmouths (water moccasins), and coral snakes.
Prevention: Watch where you place your hands and feet. Step ON logs, not over them (a snake may be on the other side). Use a flashlight at night. Shake out boots and clothing before putting them on.
If bitten: Stay calm (easier said than done). Remove jewelry and tight clothing near the bite (swelling will occur). Immobilize the bitten limb at heart level. Get to medical care as quickly as possible.
Do NOT: Cut the wound, apply a tourniquet, apply ice, or attempt to suck out the venom. These "treatments" cause more harm than the bite itself.

Wilderness Navigation Without Instruments

When compass and map are unavailable, the woodsman can still maintain a general sense of direction using natural indicators. These methods are approximations — none is precise — but used together, they provide useful orientation.

The Sun:

The sun rises in the east and sets in the west (approximately — the exact direction varies by season and latitude)
At solar noon (which may differ from clock noon), the sun is due south in the Northern Hemisphere
Shadows point north at solar noon

The Stars:

The North Star (Polaris) indicates true north and is found by following the "pointer stars" of the Big Dipper
The entire sky appears to rotate around Polaris throughout the night

Vegetation:

In the Northern Hemisphere, the sun's southern exposure means south-facing slopes are warmer and drier. Vegetation is often lusher on north-facing slopes (more moisture retention).
Tree growth rings are sometimes wider on the south side (more sunlight = more growth), but this indicator is highly unreliable and should never be used alone.
Moss grows on ALL sides of trees, not just the north side — this is one of the most persistent and dangerous myths in outdoor lore.

Streams and Rivers:

In general, following a stream downhill leads to larger streams, then rivers, then settlements. If lost without other options, following water downhill is one of the most reliable strategies for reaching civilization.
Streams in valleys often parallel trails and roads.

The Ethics of the Woodsman

The true woodsman is not a destroyer but a student and guardian of the wilderness. He takes what he needs and no more. He leaves the forest as he found it — or better. He respects the animals he hunts, the trees he fells, and the streams from which he drinks.

The sportsman who kills more than he can use is not a sportsman but a vandal. The camper who leaves a trail of tin cans, garbage, and scarred trees is not a camper but a public nuisance. The fire-builder who walks away from live coals is a criminal, whether the law calls him one or not.

These woods, these waters, these mountains are the inheritance of all Americans. They were here before us; they will be here after us — if we have the decency and the discipline to leave them so. Use them, enjoy them, learn from them — but leave them whole for those who follow.

This is the first and last lesson of woodcraft: the wilderness is not ours to consume, but ours to use wisely and pass on, undiminished.

Leave the Wilderness Undiminished

Kephart wrote these words in 1906 — and then spent the rest of his life living them. He co-founded the movement to create Great Smoky Mountains National Park, preserving 522,000 acres of Appalachian wilderness permanently. His ethic was simple: use the wilderness skillfully, take only what you need, and leave it whole for the next person. Today we call this Leave No Trace, but the principle is the same one Kephart articulated over a century ago. The skills in this book are tools for living in the wild — not for consuming it.