Part IV

which you know, or of which you have read; (6) about their continuous movement, its direction, and whether the movement is visible to your unaided eyes; ((?) about the influence of light upon their natural movement. Add the names of plants found in cellars and caverns, and account for their life without light. -- 11. Which requires the higher temperature, tassels and silk of Indian corn ? the blade of Indian corn? the root of Indian corn ? an anemone ? a Jacqueminot rose ? an aster ? -- CHAPTER IX. THE PLANT BODY. A. THE PLANT BODY. Green slime, pond scum, sea lettuce, kelp. The simplest plant bodies are masses of houseless protoplasm. The next higher are plant cells living" alone, or in rows, or in cell surfaces. I. The body of the lowest plants has no root, stem, or leaf; as, yeast, bacteria, slime moulds, kelp, diatoms, black mould. II. Higher plants divide as they grow into many forms. Each form has a different composition and par- -- ticular use ; as, tendrils of pea, flower cluster of aster, thorn of plum, tubers of potato. -- Caution. Large seaweeds appear to he develojjed into stock and leaves ; hut the division is somewhat unreal^ as in spite of the fact that the poor things do their THE PLANT BODY 95 best, they have not developed very good stem and leaj systems from their simple structures. Tasks. (1) Study with the microscope examples of the four plants at the beginning of the lesson. Do these plants belong to high or low orders ? Use the following names in state- -- ments : yeast, kelp, black mould. Write the statements so that they will tell where the plants are found. Use the following names of plants in statements, telling whether -- they belong to high or low orders : Irish Moss. the water lilies, magnolias, linden trees, -- Classify these : the rose family. red seaweed, wheat rust, daffodils, barberries. (2) Write an example of the simplest plant body. -- Tell by examination whether the following appear to have members : sea lettuce, rockweeds, kelp, lichens. 96 A PRIMER OF BOTANY. -- Write the name of a plant which is an example of, a single cell. Ia3^ers of cells. rows of cell surfaces resembling leaves. Do you scrape high or low orders of plants from pepper -- grass ? grape leaves ? garden lettuce ? Wiite a statement about, large seaweeds, masses of mould, -- Correct mistakes of fact : rock lichens. Yeast belongs to a high order of plants. Geraniums are masses of naked protoplasm. Rockweeds have roots, stems, and leaves. White rusts are entirely marine. The flowering plants have undeveloped bodies. (3) Tell whether the plant body of each of the following is -- one or many celled ; whether it has one or many tissues ; and if it is memberless or not : (a) a pine tree. (^) red rust upon oats or barley. (c) " cedar apples " on red cedar twigs. (cZ) a fuchsia plant. ((?) the mosses. Tell which plants are of high orders, and which of the low orders. Of what is the lowest order of plants made ? Define protoplasm. In what is it usually boxed ? THE TLANT BODY. 97 Write upon the board a statement containing the name of a very simple plant, and of a very complex and high-ranking plant. Write another statement, with all the points of difference between them which you can notice. B. STEMS. A potato is an underground stem. The so-called root of a gladiolus is a fleshy stem. A strawberry plant is a prostrate stem. ''Sweet flag-root" is a fleshy^ underground stem. Passion Flower. Does a plant in its earliest stage possess a stem ? When does the stem develop? It is a member of what ? Ans. The plant body. Are all members of the stem like or unlike in the earliest stage of stem life ? Prove your decision by bulb stems, and by stems upon which flowers rest. 98 A PKIMER OF BOTANY. Describe any familiar common stem. Tell how a potato differs from an aerial stem. Give another example of stems thickened into fleshy knobs. Give differences between the underground stem of a gladiolus and that of a potato. Give the common name of prostrate stems. Describe a runner, and give an example. How does the stem called " sweet flag-root " differ from the underground stems above mentioned ? Study a specimen with joints and branches. Blood-root is a good example. 1. Branches are stems develoj^ed from other stems. The usual stem is a bundle of tissue systems plainly arranged for strength^ and hearing leaves. A 2. runner is a weak and trailing stem; as, the strawberry plant. A 3. root stock is a fleshy^ tveak^ generally underground stem, developing horizontally with branches; as, sweet flag. 4. Corms are fleshy, underground, leaf- bearing ste7ns; as, the crocus, gladi- olus. 5. Tubers are stems sivollen to knob-like reservoirs of plant food. They are underground stems and bear small leaves called scales ; as, the potato. 6. Bulb stems are underground stems, short and leaf-b earing ; as, the bulb stem of the onion. Tendrils. 7. Tendrils are slender, air-growing stems made so largely of fibrous tissue that they are seldom leaf-bearing. THE PLANT BODY. 99 8. Thorns are thick^ aerial stems nearly destitute of leaf material. 9. Flower stems are aerial and usually short. From them are developed leaves., floral envelopes.) and the very flowers. Task. -- Give an example of, -- (a) a stem which is named, (1) a corm. (2) a root stock. (3) a bulb stem. (4) a tendril. (5) a thorn. Iris. (5) a runner ; an ordinary stem. (c) a flower stem. Give the plant members developed by the flower stem. Tell what you have learned about the development of stems from the plant body. Describe the condition of the lowest orders of plants. What is true of any plant in its youngest stages ? -- Give the proper name of, a potato, "roots" of the gladiolus, a strawberry plant, " sweet flag-root." Potato. 1. Write a statement about the stem of a geranium. 2. Write another, about the runners of the strawberry. 100 A PRIMER OF BOTANY. 8. Rightly name, spell, and write the ' roots" of blue grass. 4. Locate the real roots of potato plants. Write clifterences between the real and the apparent roots. 5. Write the real name of so-called crocus roots. 6. Write a careful description of the stem which produces the onion, with its proper name. 7. Write the name of the stems by which Virginia creep- ers climb. 8. Write five examples of flower stems. 9. Describe dwarfed, rigid stems found upon rose bushes. c. LEAVES. A A. leaf is a broad surface designed to spread as much jylant tissue as ^jossihle in the air and the light. It isftdl of chlorophi/U cells. Bracts are S7nall leaves^ ivith or ivithout chloro- phyll stains. Scales are tough and rigid leaves ivith- Sessile. Stalked. Sheathed. out chlorophyll cells. Floral envelopes are delicate and velvety leaves. possess more or less chlorophyll. They -- . THE PLANT BODY. 101 Stamens are leaves oddly developed into stalky pollen hox^ and pollen. Ca7yels are leaves folded into slender holders of polle7i. B. At the bases of floiver clusters of golden rod or asters you I ivill find bracts. Buds are protected by scales; thus, lilac buds are wrapped in l/Z scales. -- Write and use, stamens, carpels, floral envelopes. ^ C. M-on otJ-. hrai-rs are fJ?orms j> 1 of leaves ; Cowslip I^eaf. as, the root-hairs of a radish. Flag I^eaf 1. Describe the floral envelope of a tulip, a rose, a buttercup. The stamens and carpels make up the true floAver. Alternate Arrangement. Opposite Arrangement. TTliorled Arrangement. 2. Describe the true flower of an anemone or a lily. The stamens are forms of what? The carpels? lu: A PKIMEK OF BOTANY. fh Needle-shaped. Linear. V y/ Oblong. Oval. Rotund. Ovate. Heart-shaped. Kidney-ehaped. Lance-shaped. Broad-blade- Spear-shaped. Arrow-shaped, shaped. Shapes of Leaves. THE PLANT BODY. 103 About what forms is this lesson? Are all these forms true leaves, or equivalents of true leaves? Give the names and shapes of six true leaves. D. ROOTS. Name a root, and tell me something about it ; as, beets are thick, long roots. Root-Sheath in Duckweed. R. root. R.S. root-sheath. Fibrous Root. -- State something about, Tuberous Root. Tap Root. a turnip, grass roots. roots of the buttercup. Tell me how roots of trees and shrubs differ in appearance from these. Roots of trees are woody, and have numerous branches. Roots of buttercups grow in clusters. Grass roots A are like matted threads. turnip is a short, swollen root. 104 A PKIMER OF BOTANY. Wliere are all these roots found? 111. All common roots are found in the soil, I". Tlie roots of a young' plant appear later than stems and leaves. They are found only in high orders of plants. A root is a development of plant tissues for food-conducting p)urposes. Incidentalli/, it is a means of locatio7i. V. Roots sometimes live in the light and air. These are aerial roots. Visit a greenhouse and study the aerial roots of orchids. Notice the greatly thickened skin. VI. Roots of plants living off other plants are found above ground. Their rootlets bury themselves in their hosts. Read the following list. Copy all names of plants -- having underground roots: (1) radish, (2) grass, (3) mistletoe, (4) lady's slipper, (5j cabbage, (6) orchids, (7) lichen, (8) dodder vine, (9) grain, (10) maples. Draw a line under the names of plants with aerial roots; with parasitic roots. Parasite means living upon another. : CHAPTER X. MB LIFE HOME OF PLANTS. HOW LONG PLANTS LIVE. (a) Animals die in autumn. (h) Perennials survive the winter. (rt) The sweet pea is an annual. (^) Peonies are perennials. Plants that live l>ut one year are called Annuals, The word i^ere^mia? means " living- through the year " currant shrubs are perennials. Most plants are very short-lived. Most of the plants we see about us die before cold weather. Plants are constantly dying and are constantly spring- ing up all over the Avorld. Speak the names of the following plants; as you give -- each, mention whether it is an annual or perennial plant: oleander, Japanese quince, lady's slipper, hyacinth, day lily, phlox. 106 A PKIMER OF BOTANY Rye Grass. Timothy. Sand Grass. It has been used in Holland for checking encroachments of the sea. ; LIFE AND HOME OF PLANTS. 107 -- Tell which of these perennials outlive the others : currant shrub, cactus -- 108 A PRIMER OF BOTANY. Write at dictation, and use in statements about their special points and values, -- Names of plants that live one or two years, potato, tobacco, cucumber, mints, cotton, heliotrope, poppies. -- Names of plants lasting many years, (1) birch, (6) ..^.tis, (2) maples, (7) quinine tree, (3) willows, (8) cat-tails, (4) cranberries, (9) palms, (5) huckleberries, (10) rushes. Test I. WRITTEN. -- Write a word that is a name, of an annual. of a plant that lives many years. Write six names of plants in the yard at home, or in the schoolroom, and tell if they are varieties produced by cultivation. Write the name of (�) a variety of rose produced by cultivation (b~) a variety of tulip. Describe in ; writing a wild rose. Define in writing a floral envelope. Use this name in a statement defining the differences of the floral envelopes of wild and cultivated roses. Write the name of a plant often found in coal. LIFE AND HOME OF PLANTS. 109 Write a statement about the character of the plant world in the early ages of our earth. What orders of the plants of our time seem most like the fossils ? Loiv orders of present plants are much like the fossils. The diatoms still cling to sub- merged sticks and stones^ and are dredged from deep-sea water. Test IT. OKAI.. (�) Water moulds are generally found attached to the bodies of dead fishes. GO Have mosses roots? Seeds of grasses have a copious starchy deposit, (c?) Bananas furnish great quanti- ties of food, (e) Sea lettuce is common along the coast. Underline the names of long-lived plants. Draw two lines under the names of water plants. Answer the question. Name four edible seeds of grasses. What climate produces bananas? Mat Grass. It has been found so useful for binding blowing sand that Acts of Parliament have been passed prohibiting its destruction under severe penalties." ; IIU A PKIMER OF BOTANY. Test III. WRITTEN. -- Write statements in which yon use correctly, life, long, short, plants, j^ears, centuries the name of a very long-lived plant. a short-lived plant. a plant of very long ago. a plant family as old as chalk. B. WHERE PLANTS MAY LIVE. In what climate are plants most abundant? What besides temperature controls vegetation ? Moisture controls vegetation. Primroses. Upon what does temperature depend ? Much upon the amount of light. Tlie poorly lighted polar circles have deficient vegetable life. The ocean depths have an equally scanty number of plants. LIFE AND HOME OF PLANTS. 11] What control has moisture upon land plants ? The character of the an- nual rainfall greatly determines the conditions of land plants. Warmth, and the direc- -- tion of rivers in the sea -- called ocean currents decide the types of both vegetable and animal sea life. 3tarsh Marigold. The wild marsh marigold shines like fire in swamps and hollows grej'." In what places upon the earth will veQ;'etation be similar? Vegetation will be much alike in all parts of each climactic belt. Exercise. (With the Teacher.) -- 1. Find on the map of the world, A forest region of the Eastern hemisphere which is the counterpart of the American forest region. 2. Of what in our country is the steppe region of Asia a counterpart ? 3. Give two points of resemblance between the Californinn and the Mediterranean regions. 4. To what does the plant life of the Pampas to a great degree correspond ? Why 5. is the same sort of veo-etation found on Prince William's Land and upon the tops of the Alps, in the heart of Europe ? 112 A PKIMER OF BOTANY. Pollen 3Iass. Bee after Honey. Bees' Heads �with Pollen. In a the bee withdraws his head from the flower. The pollen mass falls by the time he reaches another into the position 6. Spotted Orchis. Po. pollen; An. anther; St. stigma. -- Explanation. The honey is in the spur of an orchis, or a nasturtium, or a larkspur. A bee pushes his hollow tongue down it as far as he can, and withdraws his head decorated with the two pollen masses which are set at the entrance. He deposits them upon the stigma of the next flower visited. Name the controlling agents which developed the plant life of the valley of tlie Amazon ; the period of coal in a long-past age. Decide whether plants of high or low orders will be most widely scattered over the world. Give a reason for your decision. APPENDIX. SOMETHING ABOUT MICROSCOPES. Microscopes are of two classes, simple and compound, A simple microscope produces the image by refraction through a single convex lens, or several thin lenses placed togetlier and acting as a single lens. In the compound microscope a very bright enlarged image is made by a leus or a combination of lenses called the objective, and this image is viewed and again magnified by means of a simple microscope called the eye-piece. The eye-piece is placed at the upper end of the brass barrel, or working tube. The area of the image depends upon the relative distances of the objective and eye-piece, so that the instrument should be provided with a "draw-tube," that its magnifying power may be increased without a change of objective or eye-piece. The essentials of a good practical compound microscope are a steady stand, provided with an accurately centred stage to which the glass slips can be attached ; a plano- concave mirror that can be swung above and below the stage for both transmission and reflection of light ; and a working barrel with draw-tube. The working barrel should be provided with both a coarse antl fine movement for rapid and careful adjustment of the lenses to focus. Most of even the cheaper stands are now provided with 114 APPENDIX. the "society screw/' This should be insisted upon when purchasing, in order that objectives of any make, and of the better as well as the clieaper grades, may be used upon the instrument when desired. A stand which will meet every requirement of this work, and be fully adequate for more extended research, together Avith one good eye-piece can be purchased for about ^25.00. To this should be added two objectives, one with a 1-inch focus, costing -$6.00 ; the other, a -J-inch focus at a cost of il6.00. A pair of long, pointed, sharp scissors, several needles inserted in wooden handles, and a shallow glass dish are essentials for manipulating tissues. Mounting. It is necessary for success in teaching to have a supply of prepared specimens, which can be mounted by the teacher much more cheaply than they can be purchased, and, after a little experience, will be much more satisfactory. Specimens should be nicely centred upon glass slips three inches by one inch in size, and protected by thin glass covers, which can be purchased in shapes square or circular. It is not economy to use poor and thick glass for either slips or covers. The mounting medium will often fasten the cover to the slip sufficiently. For added security it is well to fasten down the edge of the cover with asphalt varnish, marine glue, or gold size, which is much better than either. For a mounting medium for tissues that are not too moist, pure Canada balsam dissolved in chloroform is recommended. As many tissues are too moist for Canada balsam, it is necessary to say that glycerine-jelly, which can be bought of any optician, is the best for the beginner. APPENDIX. 115 The amateur will find invaluable iiints and directions in regard to work witli the microscope in Dr. J. G. Wood's little book, " Wonders of the Microscope," which can be bought for seventy-five cents. Dr. Carpenter's work on the Microscope contains very complete directions for mounting every kind of tissue. To the fullest equii)ment and most exhaustive directions the novice must add 2^citience^ and a determination to make 2)resent failures contribute to future successes. Care of Michoscope. The objectives and eye-pieces must be kept scrupulously clean. The surfaces of the lenses are clean when the condensed breath upon the glasses almost instantly disappears. 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