Lucca della Robbia and Maiolica

prior to the time of Lucca della Robbia, who discovered an enamel of peculiar whiteness and excellence. The secret of its composition was kept by him, his nephew Andrea, and his greatnephews, Giovanni, Lucca, and Girolamo, until 1507. The mezza Maiolica was then superseded by the true Maiolica, or the tin enamelled wares of Caffaggiolo, Castel Durante, Urbino, Pesaro. Faenza, Forli, Diruta, Siena, and Gubbio cities all within a limited district, lying towards the east coast of Italy, and renowned centres of the Maiolica fabrication. The Gubbio ware is noted for its metallic ruby and golden lustre, and was signed by Maestro Georgio (Georgio Andreoli ), the finest 109 period of this master was about 1525. The same artist also lustred many wares made by the potters of Urbino and Castel Durante, Other examples of Urbino ware are signed by Niccola da Urbino ( 1 S3)> Orazio Fontana, the head of a noted family of potters, consisting of father, son, and grandson (1510-1600); Francesco Xanto Avelli (1530-40). Faenza ware was produced at the Casa Pirota Botega, and Siena ware was signed by Maestro Benedetto. The chief characteristics of Caffaggiolo ware are arabesques and figures in white, grey, or yellow on a rich dark-blue ground. Urbino has small medallions with figures and blue and yellow arabesques on a white ground, called Raffaelesque, being from designs by Raffaelle del Colle. Faenza has a yellow ground with blue arabesques. In brief, the number of colours that could be used on the absorbent tin enamelled ground with its lead glaze was somewhat limited, consisting of blue, turquoise, yellow, and orange. These colours are of great depth and translucency, and are only equalled by the blues and turquoise of China, Persia, and India. Gubbio ware is frequently enriched with a raised curved fluting called gadroons, a most effective method of enhancing the beautiful ruby lustre of Maestro Giorgio. This Gubbio tradition was continued by Giorgio's son, Vicentio, called Maestro Cencio, and many beautiful lustre works are signed by him. This lustre was produced by exposing the ware to the action of smoke during the firing in the kiln; the smoke, being carbon in a highly-divided state, reduces the metallic salts of the pigment or glaze, forming a thin film of metal upon the surface, the beautiful iridescent lustre resulting from the relative thickness of the film. Castel Durante was frequently enriched, on white or grey borders, with delicate raised scroll-work in white slip or enamel, a process called Lavoro di sopra bianco or bianco sopra bianco. Faenza Maiolica has, frequently, the whole surface of the ground covered with a dark-blue enamel, enriched with dancing amorini and arabesques in blue, heightened with white Sopra Azzurro. A frequent form of enrichment upon plates was to have small medallions painted with portraits and appropriate inscriptions, and doubtless intended as lovers' presents. They are known as Amatorii Maiolica. IIO ERRA COTTA. Terra cotta is usually made from pure clay, which will burn to a white or yellow colour, or from impure, which will burn to a red colour owing to the presence of oxide of iron. Pure clay is a hydrous silicate of alumina, containing 47 parts per cent, of silica, 40 of alumina, and 13 of water. Clay in this proportion is the Kaoline or china clay. Fire clay, which is found in the coal measures, has a larger pro- portion of silica than Kaoline, and from it much of the terra cotta is made. When first dug out, it is hard and compact, and of a greenish- grey colour, this causes deepening to " it to fall," black. It is often weathered before using ; and facilitates grinding. Old fire-clay, previously burnt " (" grog as it is called), is added to the new clay to counteract the excessive shrinkage to which all close-grained clays are liable. The coarser the clay, the less the GREEK TERRA shrinkage. Pure clay contracts as much as one-eighth COTTA. SELENE t> PAN from the size of the mould : one-half of this contra-ction takes place in drying, the other half in burning. The colour of the clay varies according to the quantity of lime, iron or bitumen it contains. The moulds for terra cotta are usu- ally piece-moulds, made of plaster of Paris, which absorbs much of the moisture of the clay. Sheet clay about two inches thick is used. This is carefully pressed into the mould, and supported by webs of clay of the same thickness. It is essential that the clay be uniform throughout, or the shrinkage would be unequal. It is then^ placed upon a flue to dry, for from two to six hours, when the clay will have contracted sufficiently to allow the mould to be taken off. It is then dried for a further period, and kiln is " muffled "the " muffle burnt in a kiln. " being a lining For fine work, the of bricks to keep the clay from actual contact with 'fire and smoke. The dry or semi-dry process is the pressing of clay-powder into metal moulds, which obviates the excessive shrinkage of the wet process. Encaustic tiles 111 are made in this way, the ornament being run into the incised pattern with " slip." Many tiles are decorated in the same way as ordinary earthenware, that is, painted and glazed. Terra cotta was largely used by the nations of antiquity, especially by the Assyrians, whose clay tablets or books throw so much light upon Assyrian history. With used the for Greek, terra cotta " antefixae," and the was extensively many beautiful Tanagra figures now treasured in our museums show the exquisite modelling by the Greeks, in such a material as terra cotta. This material was used by the Etruscans for their sarcophagi and recumbent figures. The Pompeians tiled their roofs with terra cotta. It was used for votive statues and offerings, and for lamps, some of which were dipped in molten glass. During the revival of art in Italy in the i^th and 1 6th centuries, terra cotta was extensively used by the Delia Robbia family. Lucca della Robbia produced many beautiful terra cotta reliefs, coated with the white tin enamel, and enriched with coloured enamels. Among his numerous works was the marble "Cantoria" or Singing Gallery (1431-40), with its ten panels of sing- ing and dancing figures in relief, which was placed by the organ of S. Maria del Fiore, or Cathedral of Flor- ence. Donatello's " Cantoria " was also placed here (page 57). They are now both in the museum of the Opera del Duomo. Lucca also executed five marble reliefs, in 1437, for the Cam- panile, from designs by Giotto, and the holding candelabra, DCLLA RQBBIA in the Sacristy of the Cathedral, Florence, are the only figures in the round by this master. " Among his Resurrection " many beautiful examples and the " Ascension." over of the terra doors cotta of the are the Sacristy in the Cathedral ; the splendid monument to Bishop Federighi, with 1 12 its beautiful recumbent figure of marble, in the Church of S. Trinita, Florence; the Tabernacle of Peretola; the Madonna of Or San Michele, and the many fine heraldic medallions, with the arms or emblems of the various Guilds, that enrich this beautiful Oratory of Florence (see page 58). Other heraldic medallions in Flo- rence are the Pazzi and Serristori arms for the Ouaratesi Palace, and in the South Kensington Museum are some fine medallions with the arms of King Rene d'Anjou, and twelve me- dallions represent- ing the months. Most of these examples have the typical quattrocento borders of fruit, flowers, and foliage or fir-cones (fig. 8, plate 2 1 ), and are enamelled in brilliant colours. Ottaviano and Agostino Duccio, contemporary scul- ptors of repute also A \ < ' > I I collaborated with RE1.IKF I'.Y ANDkKA I'M I A KOIIHIA. Lucca in the pro- duction of this ware. Andrea della Robbia, the nephew of Lucca, carried on the traditions with rare selective power and artistic skill. Among his early works are the medallions with the bambini, for the Loggia of the Spedale degli Innocent!, or Foundling Hospital, at Florence, in collaboration with his uncle, Lucca, and Brunelleschi, the architect. The Adora- tion and the Annunciation were familiar subjects with Andrea. There is a splendid " Adoration " in the South Kensington Museum. GLASS. Plate 41. WITHA5PIIVAL THfVfAO IM M.UC r u - K~^l -r... POKJLAMD VA5C ^r\An TADLCT in WUCP COPY Of DAPO\ DLUt CLA33 WHfic cAnco on etutoflpuno /^ ADC in A MOULD. 5 K n TH t. nouK5 irt WHITE: PMTjgn 9 KM. AHA&IAM C^A^ACLLCD 5 Viicp pi TRjrvyoi'j'f 'K-L'UrrrD GLA?? -v- -. ~ 114 - ;v-. v LASS. The purity of glass, its adaptability to colour, and its remarkable ductility while hot for blowing, twisting, or drawing into threads, differentiates it from all other materials and methods of treat- ment. Its tradition dates from the remote past, for glass-blowing is represented on the tombs at Thebes (B.C. 2500). It was also used in Egypt for vitreous pastes for bronze and gold cloisonne" jewellery, and for the small bottles or Stibium, with chevron patterns, in yellow, turquoise, and white on a coloured ground. Similar patterns, colours, and forms were used by Phoenicia and her colonies. Many remains of bowls were found in Assyria, one of transparent green glass having the name of Sargon (B.C. 722). Greece seems to have imported most of her glass from Phoenicia, but the Romans carried on the tradition, producing fine MOSAIC or MILLEFIORI. This was made by fusing rods of white and coloured glass together, then drawing it out to fine threads, and slicing it transversely; the section is then placed in a mould and a bubble blown, uniting the mosaic, which is then blown into various shapes. The Romans also used the interlacing of white and coloured rods, called LATICINIO, but they excelled in the CAMEO GLASS, of which the Portland vase is the finest known example. This vase is of dark blue glass, covered with white opaque glass, which was ground away with the wheel, leaving the figures in delicate relief. It was found in 1644 in the sarcophagus of Alexander Severus (A.D. 325), the subject of its relief being the myth of Peleus and Thetis. Another Roman example of cameo glass in the British Museum is the Auldjo vase or Oinochoe, with beautiful reliefs of vine leaves. Frequently these reliefs were blown or pressed into moulds (fig. 6). The tradition then declined until the i4th century, when the Venetians in the Island of Murano perfected the art of glass-making. The earliest examples of VENETIAN GLASS were massive, richly- gilt, and enamelled in colours. Museum is signed by its maker, One fine example in the " Magister Aldrevandini." British In the i 5th and i6th centuries, the most delicate and beautiful blown glass was made, often uncoloured, and with enrichments of knots and wings in blown and shaped blue glass. The Venetians used with equal skill all the old methods of glass-making the MILLEFIORI; the LATICINIO, or threads of opaque white enclosing pattern; Ri IICELLI, a network of white lines enclosing at the intersections a bubble of air; and the beautiful VITRO DI TRINA, filigree or lace glass, formed by canes or threads of white or coloured glass being placed in a mould, a bubble being then blown in, and the glass at t<r wards taken from the mould and blown or twisted to the shape required. The artistic bronze mirrors of ancient and mediaeval times now give way to the glass mirrors of the Venetians (A.D. 1500). US STAINED GLASS. Plate 42 tHRLY PJSAILLC feLA53 . f-AUSBURY CATHcDRAL 116 TAINED GLASS, \ith its depth and translucency, owes its intrinsic qualities to metallic oxides, such as cobalt, giving tine blues, silver, pale and deep yellows, pink from iron and antimony, and ruby from gold and copper, which also yields fine greens. When these oxides termed " are mixed with the glass in its fused state, it is pot-metal," but if the coloured oxides are applied to the surface of the glass only, it is termed "flashed" or " cased glass." Ruby, owing to its depth of colour, is usually cased glass. Fine blues are often flashed, and splendid effects are produced by flash- ing ruby over yellow or blue pot-metal glass. Cased glass is of the greatest value, owing to the variety of tint that can be produced on a single sheet of glass, and also because the colour may be removed by grinding or by the use of fluoric acid. The rationale of the glass painter is: (i) The scheme of composi- tion and colour shown on a small scale; (2) a full-sized cartoon in charcoal or monochrome, with all the details carefully drawn, and showing the lead lines and positions of the iron stanchions for strengthening the window; (3) a tracing on cloth showing the lead lines only, called the cut line, on which are cut the selected pieces of glass ; (4) a tracing of the details from the cartoon, with brown enamel, on each piece of glass, the pieces after firing being then fixed in the leading, and kept together with H-shaped leads. The brown enamel, which is used entirely for outline, detail, or shading, is a fusible glass in combination with opaque manganic or ferric oxide and tar oil. With this enamel, smear shading or stip- PORTION OK A "JKSM%" WINDOW, CANTERBURY CATHEDRAL. j g sna<Jj n g J S WOrked. This may be removed as required, before firing, by means of a pointed stick or quill, so as to give the details of embroidery or of heraldic forms. Silver stain (oxide of silver), introduced at the beginning of the 117 1 4th century, is largely' used in stained glass, and usually on the back thereof. According to the different degrees of heat in the firing, a pale yellow or deep orange of great transparency is produced. Coloured glass was made by the Egyptians 4,000 years ago, but the earliest stained glass windows recorded were those at Brionde (A.D. 525). None, however, are known to be still in existence prior to those of S. Denis (A.D. 1108). The early examples found in Norman windows have small medallions of figures and ornament of a decided Byzantine type, extremely deep in colour, being, by their style , of treatment, termed mosaic glass. The 1 3th century, or early Gothic period, has single lancet lights, with medallions containing small figures surrounded by the typical I3th century foliage; or the windows were entirely of ornament in grisaille, CENTURY HERALDIC GLASS arranged symmetrically or with a flowing treatment of the vine grow- ing from Jesse, and the recumbent figure of called the " Tree of Jesse " with narrow bands of ruby or blue, and wide borders. These grisaille windows are of a greenish-white glass, with the or- nament in outline, and the ground hatched with brown ena- mel in fine cross lines (figs. I and 2). The north transept window at York Cathedral, called the " Five Sisters," is typical of this grisaille glass. The finest exam- ples, however, are at Salisbury, Canterbury, and Chartres Cathe- "QUARRIES," ENGLISH EARLY l6TH CENTURY. (S.K.M.) enamel details, desired. was frequently drals. Later in the period, single figures were introduced under a simple canopy or gable, plain or crocketed, with an ordinary trefoil arch. " " Quarry glass, square or diamond in shape, with brown used where simple masses were In the 1 4th century, the figures were larger and placed under canopies in each light of the mullioned windows; such figures in 118 rich colours form a bright belt across the window, surmounted by the canopies, cusped and crocketed, and in strong yellow pot metal, or yellow-cased glass. The borders were narrow, with a somewhat natural rendering of the rose, the maple, and the oak. In the 1 5th century a further change took place, figures became more numerous, and the canopy or shrine larger, and chiefly in white .glass, with the crockets and finials tipped with yellow stain ; a good illus- tration is that given from All Saints' Church, York. The coloured border of the earlier glass is entirely absent, its place being taken by the shaft of the canopy, and the crockets, finials, and ornaments are square in treatment, and based chiefly on the vine leaf. Fairford Church perhaps contains the finest series of late Gothic glass (A.D. 1 500-30). Like the contemporary architecture of the i6th century, ' stained glass was now influenced by the Renas- >? cence. The canopy still survived, but was hori- zontal or pedimental in form, with purely classical columns and details. Good examples of this period are the windows of King's College Chapel, Cambridge (1520), where rich Renascence work is in- troduced into, late Gothic mullioned windows. These windows are probably similar to those by Barnard Flower, glazier, placed in Henry the Seventh's Chapel at Westminster Abbey, as in Henry the Seventh's will it was expressly provided that "the walles, doores, windows, archies, and vaults and y magics of the same, of our said chapell, within and without be painted, garnisshed, and adorned with our armes, bagies, cognoisaunts, and other convenient painteng, in so goodly and riche manner as suche a werk requireth, and to a King's werk apperteigneth" : "that the -windows of our said chapell be glased with stores [? stories], ymagies, armes, bagies, and cognoisaunts." Of this glass little remains, but we know that a contract was made in the time of Henry the I.ATK GOTHIC WINDOW, NORTH AISLE, ALL SAINTS' CHURCH, YORK. Eighth Chapel, tCoacmobmrpildegtee,th"ewiwtihndgoowosd,ofclKeinne,g'ssurCeo,llaengde perfyte glasse, and oryent colors and imagery of the story of the old lawe and of the new lawe, after the forme, maner, goodenes, curiousytie, and clenelynes, in every poynt of the glasse windowes of the Kynge's new Chapell at Westminster." glass was by Francis Williamson and Simon Symonds, giaiten, of London, and its cost was to be sixteen pence per foot. Gal yen 119 Hoon, Richard Bownde, Thomas Reve, and James Nicholson also agreed to execute eighteen windows of the upper storey of King's College Chapel, similar to those at Westminster by Barnard Flower, six of the windows to be set up within twelve months, and the bands of leads to be at the rate of twopence per foot. At Warwick, the windows of the Beauchamp Chapel were glazed by John Pruddle, of Westminster, " with the best, cleanest, and strongest glasse of beyond the sea that may be had in England, and of the finest colours of blew, yellow, red, purpure, sanguine, and violet, and all other colours that shall be most necessary and best to make and embellish the matters, images, and stories that shall be delivered and appointed by the said executors by patterns in paper, afterwards to be traced and pictured by another painter, in rich colours, at the charges of the said glazier." About 1540, transparent enamels were introduced with skill and reticence, but gradually glass painters began to vie with pictorial oil painting in effects of light and shade, the ground work or material losing that beautiful translucent or transmitted colour which is the chief glory of stained glass. An example showing the degradation of this art is the west window of New College, Oxford, painted by Jervas, in 1777, from designs by Sir Joshua Reynolds. In the 1 4th century, the English craftsman attained a thorough mastery over his materials, and consequently the type of ornament followed English contemporary architecture more closely. To sum up, stained glass changed through the different periods from the rich coloured mosaic of the Normans, the equally rich coloured medallions and grisaille glass of the early Gothic, the decorated Gothic, with glass in lighter colours and a prevalence of yellow stain, culminating in the later Gothic period, when largeness of mass, lightness, and silvery colour were the characteristics. A beautiful treatment of stained glass, dating from the I5th century, was used by the Arabians. This glass, which has a singular gem-like quality, and is without enamel or stain, was let into a framework of plaster, which had been cut and pierced with geometrical or floral (patterns. Modern stained glass has attained a high degree of perfection in design and material under Burne Jones, Walter Crane, Frederic Shields, and Henry Holiday, with glass such as that produced by Morris, Powell, and Sparrow, and the American opalescent glass of La Farge and Tiffany. The individuality of their work, appropriate- ness of treatment, based upon the splendid tradition of the past, mark a distinct epoch in the history of stained glass. Splendid heraldic glass by A. W. Pugin may be seen in the Houses of Parliament, Westminster; and in the hall and staircase of the Rochdale Town Hall there is a fine series of windows by Heaton, Butler, and Bayne, remarkable for dignity of style and unity of conception. 120 NAMELS. Of the many decorative arts, enamelling is one of the most beautiful, having a singular charm of limpid or opalescent colour of great purity, richness and durability, and being capable of a most refined and varied treatment for the enrichment of metals. Enamel is a vitreous or glass compound, translucent or opaque, owing its colouring properties to mineral oxides, or sulphides, a fine opaque white being produced by oxide of tin. These enamels require different degrees of heat in order to fuse them and to cause their adhesion to the metal. Enamels are divided into three classes : CLOISONNE, CHAMPLEVE, and PAINTED ENAMELS. CLOISONN enamel is that in which the cloisons or cells are formed by soldering thin, flat wire of metal upon a plate of copper, the cloisons being filled with the various enamels, in powder or in paste, then, in order to vitrify the enamel, it is heated in a kiln, if upon a flat surface, or by the aid of a blow-pipe if upon a curved surface. Cloisonn6 was in use from the early dynasties in Egypt, many fine large pectorals having been found in the tombs. These usually have the form of a hawk and are of gold or bronze with well-defined cloisons, which were filled with carefully fitted coloured paste or glass, and this undoubtedly was the origin of the true or vitreous cloisonne enamel. Byzantine enamel is invariably cloisonne^ and one of the most beautiful examples of this period is the Pala d'Oro of S. Mark's at Venice (A.D. 976, see page 127). Perhaps the Chinese and Japanese have carried this cloisonn to its greatest perfection in soft- ness of colour and beauty of technique. The earliest Chinese cloisonne is of the Ming dynasty (1368-1643); this has heavy cast metal grounds with low toned colours and deep reds and blues. Under the Ch'ing dynasty, ,which commenced in 1643, the colours became brighter and the Early Japanese designs more " refined. " cloisonn^ or Shippo was doubtless derived from Chinese or Persian sources, and it is characterized by extremely thin beaten copper grounds and the frequent use of a dark green ground in place of the dark blue of the Chinese cloisonne^ The Japanese cloisonn reached its culmination during the last century, when many splendid examples of refined and delicate enamels were produced, remarkable for their beautiful opalescent and translucent colour. Gold cloisons with opaque and translucent enamels were frequently inserted in iron or silver objects by the Japanese of this period. An early example of English cloisonn6 is the jewel of King Alfred A (page 125). fine Celtic cloisonn treatment may be seen in the Ardagh chalice (page 125), where the cloisons were cut out of a plate of silver and embedded in the enamel while soft. The Celtic crafts- men also had a beautiful treatment of enamelling by engraving or 121 pressing a pattern in intaglio or sunk relief, on an enamelled ground, and then filling these intaglios with other enamels. A most exquisite kind of enamel called " Plique a Jour" was used by the Byzantines : this was composed of open filigree cloisons, filled with translucent enamels. CHAMPI.EVK enamel is formed by engraving, casting or scooping out the cloisons from a metal plate, leaving a thin wall or boundary between each cloison, which is then filled with the various enamels as in the cloisonne" method. This Champleve method was practised in Britain before the Roman Conquest, and was probably derived from the Phoenicians, who, centuries before the Romans came to England, had traded with Cornwall for tin. The beauty oF colour and perfect adaptability of these early enamelled brooches, fibulae and trappings of horses of the early Britons and Celts, are remarkable, A showing a fine sense of colour and, a harmony of line and mass. splendid bronze Celtic shield (fig. 6, plate 13), now in the British Museum, is enriched with fine bosses of red enamel. These Champleve enamels upon bronze have usually an opalescent or cloudy appearance caused by the fusion of the tin in the bronze alloy during firing. Champleve" enamels were used with rare skill and refinement to enhance the beautiful art of the goldsmith during the Middle Ages ; the Chalice, the Paten, the Reliquary, the Thurible, the Crozier, and the bookcovers of the Churches, especially, were enriched with beau- tiful enamels. Classed among the Champlev6 enamels is that method called JEWELLER'S ENAMEL or "Baisse Taille" in which the plate is engraved in low relief or beaten up in repousse" and then flooded with translucent enamel. The Lynn cup of the time of Richard II. is one of the oldest pieces of corporation plate and is covered with fine translucent blue and green enamels (plate 43). In India, where fine colour is a splendid tradition, Champleve' enamel soon attained a remarkable perfection of technique and purity and brilliance of colour almost unknown to the Western nations. The Champleve" enamels of JAIPUR have most beautiful lustrous and transparent blues, greens, and reds laid on a pure gold ground. PERTUBGHUR is renowned for the fine green or turquoise enamel fired upon a plate of gold ; while the enamel was still soft a plate of pierced gold was pressed into the enamel. This pierced plate was afterwards engraved with incidents of history or hunting. In RATAIN, in Central India, a similar enamel is made having a fine blue in place of the Pertubghur green. The fine monumental brasses, of which many still remain in our English cathedrals and churches, are a survival of the Champleve' process, the cloisons being usually filled with a black NIELLO, but occasionally the heraldic shields are enriched with coloured enamels. During the nth and I2th centuries, LIMOGES was renowned for its Champlev enamels, but early in the I5th century PAINTED ENAMELS were introduced, and Limoges became the centre of this art, called late Limoges or GRISAILLE ENAMEL. 122 The enamel colours were now and fired upon a copper plate. used as a pigment, and were The enrichments in grisaille, painted or grey and white were used upon a black, violet or dark blue ground, the grisaille afterwards being enriched with details of fine gold lines. These Limoges enamels have a splendid technique, but they lack the charms of the luminous colour L/MOG ENAMELLED BV PIERRE RAYHON? and judicious use of enamels of the early Champlev period. The most renowned masters of the painted enamels of Limoges were Penicand (1503), Courtois (1510), Pierre Raymond (1530-1570), and Leonard Limousin (1532-1574). About 1600-1650 Jean Toutin and his pupil Petitot produced some fine painted miniatures in opaque enamels upon gold, remarkable for delicacy and perfection of enamelling. In 1750 painted enamel was introduced into England and produced for about thirty years at Battersea by Janssen. The enrichment consisted of flowers painted in natural colours on a white ground. A similar enamel was also produced at Bilston in Staffordshire. The finest enamels undoubtedly are those in which the enamel is used in small quantities, such as in the Celtic jewellery, the bookcovers, and the Church and Corporation plate of the Gothic and early Renascence period, and the early Byzantine cloisonne^ such as the Hamilton brooch in the British Museum, and the Pala d'Oro of S. Mark's, Venice, which was made at Constantinople for the Doge Orseolo in A.D. 976, and has 83 panels of fine cloisonn6 enamel set in a framework of gold. The " Plique ft jour" the " Baisse taille" and the Pertubghur enamels are fine examples of appropriateness of treatment with translucency or opalescence and richness of colour. The Japanese cloisonne" with its literal treatment of natural forms, and the painted enamel portraits of Francis I. and contemporary princes by Leonard Limousin, clever as they undoubtedly are, lack the depth and purity of colour obtained by the early methods. Frequently, however, the Penicauds, Nardou and Jean I, and II, obtained some richness in the painted enamels by the use of "/////Wv" or pirrrs of metallic foil which were afterwards flooded with translucent enamel. 123 GOLD AND SILVER. ROMAN SILVER. CUPS, FROM THE TREASURE TRf'VE OfHILDESHElM. BERLIN. OCTAGOMAL OOLDYESSEL.BVPJ OFTWCT BUKARE5T MUSEUM THE TARA BROOCH. THE LIMERICK CROSIER. . PASTORAL STAFF, EHRJCHH) W1IH TRAMSIUCErtT IRJSH- EARLY TilF.CfNNCUP .SJLVTR.OILT 6 CMAMELLCD ENGLISH OUJ.D I\JP ttY HOliMDM 124 OLD AND SILVER. With their intrinsic value, ductility, and colour, Gold and Silver have long been with the decorative arts of the past, and beauty of associated the many splendid examples still in existence are a tribute to the culture and personality of the craftsman. Beautiful early examples were found in 1859 with the mummy of Queen Aah-Hotep (1800 B.C., Cairo Museum), and consisted of bracelets, armlets, rings, chains, a diadem, a small model of a war galley, and a poniard, all of exquisite workmanship and of pure gold, enriched with jasper and turquoise vitreous pastes. At Petrossa, in 1837 (Bukharest Museum), some splendid gold objects of Byzantine workmanship were found, consisting of two neck-rings or Torques, a large salver, hammered and chasect, a ewer, a bowl with figures in repousse", four fibulas enriched with precious stones, a gorget, and two double-handled cups (plate 43). At Guarrazar, in Spain, ten gold votive crowns of Gothic workmanship were found: one inscribed with the name of King Suintila (A.D. 630) is now in the Museum at Madrid ; the others are in the Hotel Cluny, Paris, the largest having the name of King Rescesvinthus (A.D. 670) in pendive letters. Of silversmiths' work, the most important is the " Treasure of Hildesheim," found in 1868 (Berlin Mu- seum), consisting of thirty objects, cups, -;, and dishes, beautiful in contour and admirably enriched with delicate re- pousse work of the Greco-Roman period (plate 43). Of the gold and silver vessels used by Solomon in the temple, we have only a representation of the seven-branched golden candlestick on the Arch of Titus, at Rome. English work of an early date is rare, but there are two very beautiful exam- ples, one, the gold ring of Ethelwulf, enriched with blue Champleve' enamel, now in the British Museum, and Alfred's jewel of gold, with cloisonne", opaque, and translucent enamels, with the inscrip- ton: Alfred me has worked": i-. with the single exception of the S. Ambrose altar-frontal, the oldest signed enamel extant (871-901, Ashmolean Museum, Oxford). Contemporary Irish work was even more skilful, and the Ardagh < h;ilice of silver, with gold filigree and enamel enrichments, and the Tara brooch (plate 43) are fine examples. 125 GOLD AND SILVER. Plate CORPUS CHMI5H CDLtrOC 1507. CAMIiWDOC 126 The wealth and elaborate ritual of the mediaeval church called forth the finest effort of the craftsman, more especially the gold and silversmiths, who in England, perhaps more than in other countries, produced abundant examples of ecclesiastical plate. Altar-frontals of gold, used only on rare festivals, are some of the richest relics of the past. An early example (nth century) was given by the Emperor Henry II. to the Cathedral of Basle (Cluny Museum). It is of gold, 3 ft. high an<d 5 ft. 6 in. wide, and has many figures in relief. At 5- with precious Ambrose, Milan, is an altar-frontal stones and enamels^ and signed by of " silver-gilt, Wolviiius," set an Anglo-Saxon, and dated A.D. 838. The great altar-frontal or Pala d'Oro of S. Mark's, Venice, was commenced in 976 at Constantinople. It is 9ft. 9 in. wide and 6ft. 6 in. high, consisting of 83 plaques of gold, on which are figures of our Saviour, angels, and saints in cloi- sonne enamels, and set with precious stones. The early two-handled chalices were frequently very large, and it is recorded that Charlemagne gave one of pure gold, set with precious stones, and weighing 53 Ibs., to S. Peter's at Rome. From the I2th century the chalice became smaller and without handles, and the bowl semi-ovid or conical. The knob or boss on the stem, together with the base, are usually lobed or hexafoil, and enriched with repousse" work and enamels (plate 44). The pax, introduced in the I3th century, was a small rectangular plaque, used in the celebration of the Mass to convey the kiss of peace. The cross, the shrine, the reliquary, the pix, the ciborium, the monstrance, the thurible or censer were of gold and silver, enriched with jewels and enamels or delicate repoussd work. The pastoral staff, or crosier, was first a staff of wood, capped by a ball or knob with a simple volute; then later the knob developed into tabernacle work, with canopies and figures, and the volute or crook, enriched with crockets, frequently enclosed the Agnus Dei (Lamb of God) or other sacred group. The early crosiers (i2th or 1 3th centuries) were usually of copper, gilt and enamelled, and of Limoges workmanship. From the I4th century, gold, silver, and ivory were the materials generally used. The Limerick crosier is a good illustration of this period (plate 43). Contemporary with this splendid ecclesiastical work was the college and corporation plate, of which the Lynn Cup (plate 43) is perhaps one of the most beautiful among many magnificent exam- ples extant. The Leigh Cup (plate 44, fig. i) and salt-cellar (fig. 2) are also of the Gothic period, but with the first half of the 1 6th cen- tury, the Renascence appears in the works of the great goldsmiths, such as Benvenuto Cellini, of Italy, Etienne de Laune, of France, and Jamnitzer, of Germany. With Holbein's design for a gold cup (plate 43) the English Renascence appears, and civic plate was en- riched with strap-work and cartouches, with foliated pendants of fruit and flowers (figs. 3 and 4, plate 44). In the i;th rrntury, the acanthus foliage, with delicate chasing and relief, is the chief feature. 127 WROUGHT IRON. Plate 45 y DiAr.HAMjDf^pC Or JHC ^ ^ one TMC jt^^Lji , nte r^TfTR^ o nr M.MCO l3C-p.iviof CATM CORAL. WTtXM OIUC BKOCIA. K U XOOT. BOL1CO TO TMr 128 ROUGHT IRON. The decorative qualities of iron, with its strength, durability, and comparative cheapness, have rendered it one of the most useful metals in the applied arts. Many fine Norman hinges of wrought iron are still in existence, having a straight central bar or strap, with small scroll terminations; these central straps were strengthened with crescent-shaped pieces, terminating in small serpent forms, probably a survival of the Viking traditions. This form of hinge was succeeded by the early Gothic hinge, which was a series of spirals springing from the straight bar or strap, the spiral being welded or fastened with collars; these spirals were enriched with a three-lobed foliage, or trefoil, typical of the early Gothic period; fine examples of this hinge occur on the west door of Notre Dame, Paris, where this typical spiral has the trefoil leaf, with birds, dragons, and small rosettes in stamped iron. This stamped characteristic may be seen, but in a less degree, in the fine hinges of Leighton Buzzard Church, Eaton Bray Church, Bedfordshire, and the Eleanor grill in Westminster Abbey, by Thomas de Leghton, in 1294. In the i^th and 1 5th centuries, when panelled doors took the place of the earlier doors, this early Gothic style of hinge was not needed (fig. 5), so that we find no trace of it in that period, but the art of wrought iron was continued with the hammered and chiselled hinges and lock plates of the most varied and delicate workmanship, which enriched the beautiful Gothic chests of the I4th and I5th centuries. The simple wrought screen, which was so largely used in the I3th century, was now elaborated, especially in Italy, and fine examples of quatre-foil grilles with massive wrought framing and a rich frieze of foliage, cupids, and animals in pierced and hammered iron are to be seen at the cathedrals of Orvieto, Prato, and Siena, dating from about 1337 to 1350, and at Santa Croce, Florence (1371); but it was in Spain and France that the screen reached its culmination. The Spanish screens or " Re"jas " in the cathedrals of Seville, Toledo, and Granada have a fine range of turned and chiselled vertical bars, some 30 to 50 feet high, with an elaborate frieze and cresting. In England many fine examples of wrought iron gates and grilles were produced during the early part of the i8th century; Jean Tijou, whose chief works are at Hampton Court and S. Paul's Cathedral (1690-1710), was followed by Robert Bateman, of Derby, the brothers Roberts, of North Wales, William Edney, of Bristol, and the London Smiths, Robinson, Warren, and Buncker, whose skilful and artistic works produced from 1707-20 is still extant in many parts of the country. Hie wrought iron gate piers in St. George's Chapel, Windsor, with their architectural treatment of open panelling, cresting, and ive buttresses, are filed, bolted, and rivetted, and are splendid examples of Flemish workmanship, probably by Quintin Matsys. 129 1 BRONZES. Plate 46 OC3ICM ON CTRUSCAM MIRROR ATMCHA.HCKMC3 t PCK3CU3. PORTION or GRCO\ ARMOUR. SROrtZfc RtPOUSSC 130 RONZES. Bronze, an alloy of copper and tin, has been in use from a remote period; its adaptability for casting, its durability and colour, render this material one of extreme beauty and usefulness. Among the many examples of antiquity are the 1,000 statues of Osiris, found in the temple of Rameses III., and the bands of figure sub- jects in relief from the Assyrian Balawat gates, now in the British Museum. In Greece, bronze was wrought with exquisite skill and refinement, and the name of Lysippos (340 B.C.) is usually associated with the finest statues. Two beautiful repousse" bronzes (fig. 4) probably by Lysippos, found in 1820 near the river Sins, in Italy, are admirable examples of this period. Many Greek statues have been found in Pompeii and Herculaneum, of which the beautiful statuette of Narcissus is the best known, and many bronze heads are still extant with the eyes formed of ivory or beautiful stones and jewels. Etruscan bronzes have a most expressive treatment of incised lines, which differentiates them from the repouss6 work of the Greeks. The bronze mirrors with an incised treatment of classic mythology (fig. 2), and the cistae, or toilet caskets, all found, with but few exceptions, at Palestrina, are typical of Etruscan bronzes. The finest example known is the " Ficoroni " Cista of the 3rd century, "B.AC.rgoIntasutcysl,i"ndrbiycalMosriidoess are enriched Plantios, and with it is anroewpreinsentthaeti"onColoflegtihoe Romano" (see "Magazine of Art," 1880, and "Murray's Handbook of Greek Archaeology "). Of small decorative bronzes, Naples Museum alone has over 14,000 examples, consisting of candelabra, tripods (figs. 3, 7, 8, and 11), tables, chairs, and couches, which eighteen Early (Naples Mbcuresonnetzuuermi)ee,squaeasngtdoritawhneerset"aMtuausreescduasbreyAtuwhreeeall"ituNhseyr"oRao"tmfRaoonumndecitai(tzAe.PnDos..mp1e7i5i, plate 47). The four bronze horses, now in front of S. Mark's, at Venice, are probably of the time of Nero. Later examples are the " Gattamelata " at Padua, by Donatello (1453), the magnificent " " Colleone at Venice (plate 47), by Verrochio and Leopardi, and the "Louis XIV." by Girardon, cast by Jean Baltazar Keller in 1699, and destroyed in the French Revolution. Many fine bronze effigies are still extant, which replaced the earlier effigies of Purbeck marble, such as the Earl of Salisbury at Salisbury (1227), and the earliest recumbent figures in gilded bronze are those of Henry III. (1272), and Queen Eleanor (1291), in Westminster Abbey, by William Torell, goldsmith of London. In Canterbury Cathedral is the fine effigy of the Black Prince (1376). The Richard II. and his Queen, in Westminster Abbey, are by Nicholas Broker and Geoffrey Prest ('395), and at Warwick is the magnificent Earl of Warwick, by William Austin and Thomas Stevens (1453). i ;i BRONZES. EQUESTRJAfl 5TATT7r OF MARJ.XI5AURCUU5 Plate 47. OTBARTOLOMtU COLEOME . BQfATIDRfA VERROCCH1O ^ALCSSArtDRp LECHVRDO. AD. 1468 VENICE GATE Of BAITlSTTlOr STATUE OT PERSEUS AT fLOfiEWCE , BV BY CELL1 MI . rUOREJICE . The Florentine Torrigiano in 1512, made the beautiful recumbent effigies of Henry VII. and his Queen (see page 77"), and also the Countess of Richmond, which are in Westminster Abbey, where there are also the gilded bronzes of the Duke of Buckingham (1628), and the Duke and Duchess of Richmond (1623), by an unknown artist. The statue of Charles I. by Le Sueur, and the Charles II. at Chelsea, and the James II. at Whitehall, by Grinling Gibbons, are later English examples of bronzes. In Rome, the recumbent effigies of Sixtus IV. (1493), and Innocent VIII., which are the finest of Renascence bronzes, were by Antonio Pollajuolo. In 1508 Michel Angelo made the colossal seated statue of Pope Julius II., which was over the door of S. Petronio at Bologna. Benvenuto Cellini was the great Florentine goldsmith; his "Nymph of Fontainebleau," a relief in bronze for the lunette over the door of the Palace, is now in the Louvre, but his masterpiece is Lanzi, at Florence, " the where " Petrheseu"sJudi(tphlataend47H),oloifnertnhees "LobgygiDaondae-i tello is also placed. Another eminent master was Giovanni da Bologna, who executed the beautiful fountain with the figure of Neptune, at Bologna. The Shrine of S. Sebald at Nuremberg, by Peter Vischer( 1508-9), and the figure of the Emperor Maximilian at Innsbruck, by Lodovico Scalza, of Milan, which is enclosed by an elaborate grille, and surrounded by twenty-eight large bronze statues of men in armour, are excellent examples of German Renascence. Many of the early historical buildings still retain their original bronze gates. Those of the Pantheon (A.D. 118-38), are still in position, also those of the cathedral at Hildesheim, with the panels of scriptural subjects in high relief, and the name and date of Bishop Bernward (1015). Early Byzantine gates cast at Constantinople by Staurachios, are at Amalfi (1066), and at S. Salvator, Atrani (1087), enriched with figures in silver damascening. The west door of San Zeno, covered with panels of repouss6 Vweorrokn(ase(ei2ptlahtecsen1t-u3r,y)", is of Arata wood, Pente- lici," by Ruskin). Early cast bronze gates in Italy are those of S. Ambroise, Milan (1170), and at Trani, Ravello, and Monreale Cathedral (by Bonanno, 1186), having relief panels and bosses upon the styles of the door. In 1 1 50, Bonanno cast some gates 'for the cathedral at Pisa, which were destroyed, with the exception of one, by fire in 1596, the west door being replaced in 1600 by a fine work by Giovanni da Bologna. Of the Renascence bronzes, the Baptistery gates are the most remarkable (see page 56), while others are those of S. Peter's, by Simone and Filarete (1439), the door of the old Sacristy of the cathedral at this master, Florence, by 1464-74), and tLhuecc"aBadledlalca chRionbobi"aof(tbhreonoznel,y bronze by t)$ ft. hijih. covering tin- hi^h ;iltar of S. Peter's, and cast from the ancient bronze enrichments of the dome of the Pantheon, by order of Pope Urban VIII., in 1633. FURNITURE. Plate 48 T 134 .r^ * ^- M ta^ g %^ J io cj DECORATIVE FURNITURE. Caskets, chests, and cabinets, chairs, tables, couches, and bedsteads have been of universal use during many ages, differentiated in design and craftsman- ship according to the culture, wealth, and customs of the people, and the versatility" inventiveness, and skill of the craftsman. Many materials have been used for furniture, the chief being wood of various kinds, which was selected for its constructive qualities, beautiful texture, grain, and colour, and its adaptability to carving and inlay. The universal use of the chair has doubtless tended to preserve its rOYPTlAN. THRONE OF OUEEN HAT5HEP5U . XVm tWNASTY. BWTOM MUSEUM . CGYPTIAn CHAlPvTlWV THCTon&or MAK WOOO M<m OLWMC. typical form through many centuries, and though undergoing various modifications, it has still retained its essential character as a seat. Numerous illustrations of early chairs are found on the carved reliefs of ancient Egypt and Assyria, and there are in the British Museum some early Egyptian chairs, one of which is of ebony, with uprights turned in the lathe, and inlaid with ivory. Many Greek chairs, remarkable for their simple and beauti- ful the form, are Roman " shown upon the early Greek vases ; Sella Curulis," or chair of senators and and % consuls, is represented on the Byzantine ivories (plate 50, 9)- The Chair of S. Peter, of the ist century A.D., which has enrichments of ivory and gold, is purely architectonic in form, and the same may be said of the coronation chair (fig. 7), which is the earliest example extant in England. The Gothic chairs, few of which remain, were of the box form, with carved linen-fold panels. During the age of Eliza- beth, chairs were of oak, with turned supports, t he- back having an arcade in low relief or in open \<>rk This form of chair James I., when the was continued " Farthingale during" Chair the reign of (chair with- I.H \ .HAIR, out arms) was introduced. In the period of Charles XVI. CKVI TRY. I., walnut was introduced, and the chairs had twisted supports and rails, the back and seat being covered with 135 DI with stamped and coloured Spanish leather. In the reign of Charles II. and James II. the twisted or the carved and scrolled form of legs were common, with the seat and portion of back in cane, and the back, cresting, and rails in richly-carved open work, similar to fig. 10. In the time of William and Mary, the long supports were turned, and the front supports and arms turned and scrolled, the back of the chair being of open work, or covered with plain or patterned velvets. The chairs with simple curved or cabriole front legs, the arms, seat, and back upholstered with cut velvets, are characteristic of the Queen Anne period. With George II. and III. we come to the use of mahogany and the work of Thomas Chippendale, who published a work on furniture in 1754, 1759, and 1762. His chairs have frequently straight legs, with shallow sunk carving, or the carved cabriole leg and claw foot; the back is of open work of scrolls, strap-work, or ribbon-work, with delicate carv- ing. Mathias Lock published a book on furniture in 1765 and 1768. In 1789 and 1794, A. Hepplewhite published a set of designs, which largely influenced contemporary furniture. Much of his work is refined and delicate in treatment and distinctive in form, such as his chairs with the shield-shaped backs. M. A. Pergolesi published a folio in 1777, and made some beautiful chairs for Robert Adam, with straight fluted legs and refined scrolled arms and back. Excellent chairs were made by Thomas Sheraton, with straight legs, turned, fluted, or enriched with delicate carving, or an inlay of coloured woods, and having a delightful reticence of form and treatment. Sheraton published in 1791 and 1793 a work on furniture. Early Gothic tables were of the trestle form, the ends being of two pieces, connected by the upper frame and a lower stretcher. The Renascence table retained this form (figs. I, 2, 4, and 5), which was but a survival of the Greek and Roman marble table (fig. 3). The Elizabethan table had legs of a bulbous form, gadrooned or carved, with upper and lower rails. The oval Gate-leg table, with spiral or turned legs, is characteristic of the early Stuart period. Chippendale frequently used the straight legs and carved or open rails, with a raised fret- work edge round the edge of the table. Sheraton's tables were frequently inlaid with different coloured woods, or of satin-wood veneer, painted with flowers or wreaths, and polished by hand. The ornament of Sheraton is seldom original, but founded upon that of Adams (plate 29), consisting of rosettes, urns, scrolls, and festoons. The artists Cipriani, and Angelica KaurTman, are known to have decorated furniture for the brothers Adam. 136 Early cupboards were of oak, with pierced and carved tracery panels, which were followed by the linen-fold panel, a favourite mode of enrichment from 1480 to 1560. In the early Renascence (plate 24), the Gothic and classic styles were intermingled, but a little later the panels were carved with medallion-heads and wreaths. This was followed by the classic furniture designed by the French architects Philiberl de 1'Orme and De Cerceau, who published a book on furniture in 1550 (fig. 2), and the famous master tbtnistes of the Renascence, of whom the best known is Andre Boule, who used a fine inlay of tortoise-shell and brass (" Boule work ") upon -ebony or mahogany, enhanced with gilded bronze mounts. In Louis XV. *s reign, Charles Cressent (1685-1768), a pupil of Boule, produced fine examples of " Boule work " and appliqut bronze enrichments. Other great ebtnistes of this Rocaille period were Juste Aureli Meissonier (1695-1750), and the brothers Slodtz, also Jacques Caffieri, a craftsman of extraordinary dexterity and cap- rice in metal mountings for fur- niture. Magnificent mahogany cabinets, enriched with marque- try, and Sevres porcelain plaques were characteristic of this period, as was also some beautiful furni- ture by Robert Martin (1706-70) and his brothers, lacquered with a transparent green and gold lac (" Vernis Martin "). With Louis XVI. and Marie Antoinette, a reaction set in for more restraint in ornament and severity of line and form, and the beautiful cabinets by Reisner and David Roentgen were remarkable for refined crafts- manship and beauty of ornamentation, with a mar- quetry of flowers, festoons, and diaper borders of rosewood, tulip, pear, and lime upon mahogany and ebony; they were enhanced with bronze mountings by Gouthiere, who was a renowned and skilful craftsman. The Elizabethan and Jacobean periods were famous for their tester bedsteads, which have richly-carved panelled or arcaded backs, the tester also having elaborate panelling and carving. The baluster pill.tr-- at the foot usually have square bases, with pierced or open arcadings, and the slender pillars above have wide bulbous divisions, gadrooned or carved. In Italy, during the i6th century, many beautiful n, or , < hextx. \cre produced, enriched with carving (fig. 6), Gesso, and gilding, or painted by the great of the Renascence. Intarsia (an inlay of wood) was uimrr-.il in It;-.ly for the enrichment of the beautiful rhojr stalls of the i 5th .ind i')th < <-ntun< -. ' \7 WOOD CARVING, CARVED FRAME IM WALT1UT. BY ATtTOmOfiARILI Lite !5Cenlu 5IF.HA. Plate 4.9 CAfA'ED MIRROR FRAME . MO O(5bOri5. I SOUTH KZTWiN&ton OI1J WOOD PtDtSTAL TOR A MUM l'.\M)t I ,<A vOll'GUnUlKJf'f . PtK>D or LOUI." XIV. GOD CARVING. Wood carving is perhaps one of the earliest and most universal of the industrial arts. The splendid carved statues and statuettes found in the early tombs of Egypt, the vigorous reliefs of the spiral and dragon from the Scandinavian churches (plate 14), the intricate spirals of New Zealand (plate i ), the pierced and carved screens of India, the beautiful carving on the furniture of the Renascence (plate 48), and the delicate and skilful work of Grinling Gibbons bear tribute to the universal skill of craftsmanship, which reached its highest point of excellence in the later Gothic and Renascence period. The choir stalls of Amiens Cathedral (plate 20) by Arnold Boulin, Alexander Huet, and Jean Turpin (1508-22), are magnificent ex- amples of the versatility and skill of the flamboyant carver. But France was not alone in the excellence of this craft, for almost con- temporaneous are the beautiful doors of the Stanza della Incendio and the Stanza della Eliodoro in the Vatican at Rome (see page 60), by Giovanni Barili, and the choir stalls in the Cathedral at Siena by Antonio and Giovanni Barili. The magnificent candelabra and the delicate carvings and intarsia in the choir of Santa Marie in Organo, at Verona, by Fra Giovanni da Verona, and the stalls and screen in Santa Maggiore, Bergamo, by Stephano da Bergamo, are some of the finest examples of wood carving in Italy. The richly carved oak stalls by Jorg Syrlin (1464-74) in the Cathedral at Ulm, indicate the beginning of the intricate and florid scroll-work, which became the type of the later German Renascence. The hanging screen and crucifix of S. Lawrence, and the crucifix at S. Sebald's, at Nuremberg (1518), by Veit Stoss (fig. 2), are admirable examples of the skilful and florid carving of the German school during the early part of the i nth century. In Flanders, the splendid chimney-piece in the Palais de Justice, Bruges, with carvings of Charles V. and his ancestors, by Guyot de Beaugrant, from designs by Blondell (1529-31), is rich, yet restrained in treatment, but in the pulpit of the Cathedral at Brussels, by Verbriiggen (1699), carved with figures and foliage, representing the expulsion from Paradise, and in the pulpit by Van de Voort in the Cathedral of Antwerp, carved with naturalistic birds, trees, and figures, extraordinary technical skill is attained, but with a loss of dignity and appropriateness of treatment. Admirable examples, good in design and technique, abound in English cathedrals, in the screens, canopies, and misereres of the choir stalls (plates 19, 27, 48) of the I4th and I5th centurn - With Grinling Gibbons wood carving reached its culmination in ddiracy and skilful craftsmanship (fig. 4), his principal works, < ni-i>ting of flowers, festoons, and birds, are carved chiefly in lime, of which fine examples are at Belton House and Petworth; and in collaboration with Sir Christopher Wren he executed splendid <.ii\ings in the library at Trinity Col .imbridge, S. Paul's Cathedral, S. Jain--X l'i< adilK . tin- vestry of S. Lawrencr. I- and .1' Hampton Court Palace. i $9 IVORIES, Plate 50 DIPT>CM *'- 5MTI3H A\ T uuwwr IVORY PLAGUE . Or THE COMSUl AMA5TA31U3 140 VORIES. Doubtless owing to the beautiful texture, colour and adaptability for delicate carving, Ivory has been in use from a remote period. Egypt, Assyria, and India have each contributed many beautiful examples of fine craftsmanship, indicative of the artistic culture of the centuries preceding the Christian Era. In the Periclean age of Greece, ivory was used for the figure of Athene Parthenos by Pheidias, placed inside the Parthenon. This statue of