Tool Preparation for Fret-Cutting

his basket and brought out two or three chisels and gouges, and a piece of fine sandstone. Taking one of the gouges in his hand, he gave a look at the pattern, then at the gouge, and as the sweep did not seem to please him, he put it down on the head of his adze and began to hammer it to the shape required ; this was soon done, he then filed the inside smooth, ground the gouge by rubbing it on the bit of sandstone, and finished it on a bit of some smoother stone. All being ready, he gave the word to his man, who began to turn the wood round with the leather strap, and then applying the gouge he soon made the chips fly. The man was evidently on his mettle, and whilst I stood by he finished a little bit of the most difficult part of the work. I went away to my own work perfectly satisfied with the man's capabilities ; and I may conclude by saying that his work was quickly finished, and compared most favourably with the Calcutta pattern. An English workman would look aghast if put down under a tree with a basket of tools and no lathe, and told to copy a nice piece of turnery work. my I tell young friends this little anecdote as a fittin* 90 A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTIXG introduction to this chapter on Carving in the solid, one of the higher branches of this beautiful art. I tell it that they may be encouraged to exercise their wits and ingenuity, and seek by simple means to overcome the many difficulties they must necessarily meet with. I address it more particularly to those who cannot afford or have not the opportunity to buy the numerous tools and appliances used by carvers to expedite their work. And my advice to all my young readers who have not the advantage of taking lessons from an experienced carver is not to spend too much money in buying all at once a multi- plicity of tools, but to buy a few at a time, and to learn thoroughly all that can be done with those tools. I cannot repeat this advice too often or urge it too strongly ; they will learn more from an experienced carver in a few lessons than can be acquired by months of study from the best book or treatise that ever was or will be written. But if they have my not this opportunity, then let them follow instruction as closely and diligently as possible j keep their minds con- stantly on the alert, and never neglect any opportunity of inspecting and studying any piece of good carving that may fall in their way, endeavouring to find out from any tool marks that may be left how it was executed, and storing up in their minds, for future use, any noticeable peculiarity of A design, of detail, or method of handling. beginner, if gifted with even moderate powers of observation, will derive some information from any form of tolerable carving that chance may throw in his way. In respect to what I have said above, to buy a few tools at a time as they are wanted, and to learn thoroughly all that can be done with those tools, here is something for my young readers to think over and experiment upon. Some people AND WOOD CARVING. gT would suppose that a set of gouges of the same sweep would make a perfect circle on a board if used in succession, each succeeding gouge (beginning with the largest) continuing the sweep marked by the preceding ; but they would make a mistake, for instead of marking a circle, the set of gouges would mark a volute or figure of this sort : showing that the gouges, as they decrease in width, keep a proportionate depth, and that the smaller or narrower gouges of the set are not mere segments of the largest. Take a set of gouges, stand the largest of the set edge upwards j put behind it the middle one of the set, and my my meaning will at once be seen ; readers will find this a useful piece of information when they come to carve scrolls, and volutes, and leaves, diminishing proportionably in size. However, any set of gouges will mark a series of circles one outside the other, the largest forming the outer circle, the next in size forming one inside it, and so in succession. Now, without further preface, let us begin a piece of carving in the solid. I have selected a pretty but simple pattern, that will convey some useful lessons. I have drawn my the squares over it, to enable readers to enlarge it at once ; if they find any difficulty in doing so, any of the 7 93 A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING squares can be subdivided, and this will render it easy enough. I should recommend them to enlarge the pattern to double the size, so the squares must be enlarged accordingly. When the pattern is enlarged, get a piece of walnut, or pear-wood, or sycamore, or lime, or any piece of wood that will not split easily 5 it must be three-quarters of an inch thick when dressed and smooth. Paste the pattern on, and when dry, take a marking gauge and run a line all round the edge at a quarter of an AND WOOD CARVING. 93 inch from the bottom. Bore a hole at the back of the wood opposite to the spot where the leaf will be thickest, towards the bottom, and insert the carver's screw, taking care it does not run through far enough to be touched by the tools. Screw the work down to the table as tightly as possible, and fix it more firmly by means of pegs put into the holes in the table, and bits of wood inserted between the pegs and the work. For the purpose of description, I will say that the leaf is divided into three main limbs, and that the upper limb is divided into two parts. Now commence the grounding, that is, cutting away all the wood outside the leaf, and from the large interstices between the three limbs of the leaf, and from that which divides the upper limb. And first of all take a gouge whose sweep will fit the curve of the leaf in the part it is intended to commence upon, and placing the edge of the gouge just outside, but quite close to the line, and holding the tool quite perpendicular, give it a moderate blow with the mallet. Take care not to drive the gouge in too deep, but begin gently. Continue the process, and where the curve of the leaf alters, the gouge must be changed; but before changing, apply the same gouge to any part of the leaf its sweep will fit, and thus avoid too frequent changes and consequent loss of time. It will be a little puzzling at first to find the proper fitting gouge, but this disappears as hand and eye become familiarized with the work. Do not cut into the smaller interstices or divisions of the leaf when sinking the ground, but cut outside of all, leaving the divisions for the finishing. For example, take the lefthand limb of the leaf: there are three points and two 91 A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING interstices, cut just outside the three points j the interstices will, as I said before, be cut in the finishing. Great care must be taken not to cut under the leaf, but let the cut be perfectly perpendicular. The reason for this is plain enough : if the leaf is undercut, then when it comes to be carved, its size and shape will be altered ; and the deeper it is carved, the greater will be the alteration. To cut down perpendicularly when grounding a piece of work, is a general rule ; but there are many occasions when this rule must be set aside ; and the cut, instead of being perpendicular, should slant outwards, away from the leaf, or whatever is being carved ; and one of these occasions is when the carver has to outline or set-in the extremity of a finely-pointed leaf. If this leaf should be across the grain of the wood, the fine point would be certainly broken off if the gouge were held perpendicularly, and struck even a moderate blow with the mallet or palm of the hand. It is therefore much better and safer to slant the gouge outwards, thus widening the base of the leaf point, and giving it proportion- ate strength to resist the thrust of the tool. The extra wood at the base given by the sloping cut can be pared away after- wards, when the leaf comes to be carved. Look at the fine slender point near the top of this leaf to the left} it would be impossible to cut down perpendicularly on each side without breaking it hopelessly ; but with the cut sloping outwards, there can be no fear of breaking it, and the extra wood can be pared away afterwards in the finishing. Now to sink the ground all round the leaf, take a flat gouge, small for the interstices, larger for the outside, and commence in this way : place the gouge at a little distance f:om thp leaf, and by a sloping cut meet the perpendicular AND WOOD CARVING. 95 cut already made j a section through the leaf will then have this appearance, the * * * showing the parts to be cut away. With the gouge now cut down the wood, scooping it out gradually until it has been got down to the level of the perpendicular cut round the leaf. Whilst doing this pay attention to the grain of the wood, take care that the chips come out clean, and that the wood is not torn by cutting against the grain. It does not so much signify that the wood is torn if the ground has to be sunk deeper, except that it is quite as well to acquire a good habit. But when the ground has been sunk to nearly its proper depth, it is imperative that the wood should not be torn ; therefore, in that case, if the grain dips away from the direction the gouge is cutting, and the wood tears, turn the wood or the gouge the other way, or cut across the grain, which in many cases Now is the easiest and most preferable way. repeat the whole process until the ground is sunk deep enough, going round the leaf with the perpendicular cut, meeting it with the sloping cut, and then clearing the wood away. When the ground has been sunk to nearly its proper depth, great caution must be observed in two things : first, that the perpendicular cut does not go below the level of the ground; this leaves a very ugly, unworkmanlike look, that is always difficult, and in most instances impossible to eradi- cate, except by sinking the ground lower, which might spoil A the whole work. chance cut may be partly effaced by dropping a drop or two of water into the cut; this swells the wood, closes the cut, and nWers it nearly invisible ; but 96 A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING if there are many such cuts, the eye would at once detect them, though it might pass over a chance one here and there. The second thing to be cautious about is what I have already mentioned, and I repeat the caution in order to impress it firmly on the mind to avoid tearing the wood when cutting against the grain j it may carry the ground too deep, and spoil the whole work ; so in places where it is not possible to cut with the grain, and for fear of tearing the wood, it is not advisable to cut against it, cut across the grain, and at all times let the chips come out clean j they must not be torn or hacked out. Before commencing to bost the leaf, look once more at the slender filament bending off to the left from the upper limb ; it has been lowered in proportion as the ground has been sunk, and extra wood has been left ; without these two precautions it would be most difficult to carve it successfully. It is a good example of an instance in which it is advisable to cut outside the line, to leave plenty of wood. But I refer to this filament again because it serves to convey another useful lesson : in all cases where a slender curved branch or stalk of a leaf has to be carved across the grain, the cut must invariably be made first on the concave side, and for this there is a very good reason : if the wood is cut away first on the concave side, then the extra wood left on the other, or convex side, serves to resist the thrust of the tool j when the wood is afterwards cut away on the convex side, then the arched form of the stalk resists the thrust of the tool. But if the wood is first cut away on the convex side, there is nothing to resist the thrust of the tool when the concave side comes to be cut, and the arched stalk is likely to be burst through. AND WOOD CARVING. 97 In all cases where the part to be carved is fine and delicate, plenty of wood must be left, and the extra thickness can be cut away in the finishing, little by little. If plenty of wood is left there is something for the carver to work on, but if too much is cut away the shape of the leaf or branch will be spoiled. As the ground is sunk, the whole of the upper limbs of the leaf should be lowered, and so also with the two delicate ornaments at the foot of the leaf to the right and left. When the ground has been sunk to very nearly the proper depth, get it as level as possible with the proper tool a very flat gouge (a very flat gouge is almost a chisel). The gauge line all round the edge will assist to guide the eye. The leaf must now be bosted, elauche, as the French carvers term it, and commence with the left limb ; and first with a half or quarter-round gouge reduce the wood until it assumes the shape of the mass of that side of the leaf. It will be seen that there is a hollow running down the centre, between the leaflets to the right and left, that it commences at the base of the top leaflet, and passes round to the back of the leaf at the third cross line from the bottom. This hollow must be bosted, and when the general shape of this side has been attained, pass on to the other, and bost the whole in like manner, bringing out the general shape of the whole mass. Remember that in bosting, the points of the leaflets must be roughed out, but the interstices must be left for the finishing, and should be done when the leaflets are finally shaped. The leaf having been bosted it must now be finished, my so let readers take pencil in hand, and, looking carefully at the design, let them sketch on the bosted mass each leaflet, division, and part, taking great pains to have all the 98 A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING features correct. When this has been done and too great pains cannot be taken to sketch on the features correctly take a rather fine gouge, or the nearest to the sweep of the leaflets that the amateur possesses, and shape off the leaflets and cut the divisions between them. Take the upper leaflet to the left, and with the gouge in the left hand, enter it at the point and work down to the junction with the next leaflet. In several of these leaflets the points, instead of being bent downwards turn up a little. This is done by raising the hand to enter the gouge at the point, and then, suddenly depressing the hand ; this scoops out a little hollow, but it cannot be done unless the gouge is bevelled from the inside. In the renaissance and Louis Quatorze styles, almost all the points turn up a little, and they are done either in this way or with a cut of a hollow gouge across and just inside the point. The limb and leaflets to the left being finished, the right hand limb must be attacked, and here care must be taken that the lower leaflet, which passes under the lower part of the left limb, is carried down deep enough, and that the covering portion of the left limb falls gracefully over it. The deep hollow at this lower leaflet is done with a fine hollow gouge, and the upper part, where the right leaflet dips under the left, is done with a fine quarter-round gouge, the pieces being picked out with a fine bent chisel. The limbs to right and left having been finished, the upper limb must be carved. The round knob at the top must first be shaped with a half-round gouge the neck should dip down quite low, and rise again towards the junction with the filament that goes off to the left. This filament tapers off from the stalk into an exceedingly fine AND WOOD CARVING. 99 point. The best way to carve it will be with the left hand from the point to the stalk. Great care must be taken not to break the point j and I take this opportunity to inculcate this principle, that every care should be taken by beginners not to break or chip anything ; and they should consider nothing well done in which there is a fracture. This will give them habits of carefulness that will save them hours of trouble and thought. The leaflet at the top to the right requires no remark ; it is carved like all the others. When the three limbs are finished, the bottom must be carefully rounded off, and great attention must be paid to the form where it joins the ground. There must be no irregularity, but it must sweep gracefully round from the point of the right-hand limb to the point of the lower left- hand leaflet. Any irregularity in the outline would com- pletely mar the effect of the whole. The circular leaflet on the stalk to the left is done with a flat gouge. It slopes from the outside to the inside. This slope should be done first, with one sweep of the gouge from the left, and the leaflet should be trimmed afterwards, taking care to make first of all the notch for the little leaflet on the top. In finishing, the amateur must take care not to leave any rags or jags or threads of wood anywhere ; he must at all times make his cuts clean, and clear out all the angles and corners of his work. If the amateur will take pains to acquire this knack, one of the most essential to good carving, it will soon become a habit, and he will, if he have any talent for this very beautiful art, become a neat and finished workman. For the last touches, level the ground as smooth as possible, and, if necessary, scrape it with the chisel. Go ioo A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING all over the leaf, and smooth every part with the gouge. The leaf must not be touched with sand-paper j it obliterates all the finer touches of the tool, and gives the work a heavy dull appearance. With practice the amateur will be able to smooth his work perfectly with the gouge. The tools to be used in rounding off leaves and scrolls, and ornamental work similar to this piece just described, are principally the flat gouge, the moderately flat gouge, and the moderately hollow gouge. All these should be bevelled When from the inside as well as the outside. I first commenced wood carving I used my gouge as supplied from the shop, not bevelled on the inside ; but as soon as I came to try my hand at scroll work and ornamentation in the renaissance style, I was obliged to adopt the plan of the French carver, and bevel my gouges from the inside. I found that it gave wonderfully increased facility in working, and enabled me to do easily what would otherwise have been nearly impracticable. The rule with French carvers is the flatter the gouge the longer the bevel of the inside. The more hollow the gouge, the shorter the bevel, until the inside bevel altogether disappears in the very hollow and fluting gouges. There is this special advantage in a gouge bevelled from the inside as well as the outside, that it can be turned and worked either way, it can hollow out the base of a flower petal and then round it off where it curves over the extremity. The ornament here introduced is of the same description as the former ; it is excellent practice, and when the amateur shall have mastered it he will find that he has made a great step in advance. The upper lobes to the left may either be rounded off AND WOOD CARVING. tor as shown in the illustration, or may be hollowed out by cuts of the gouge from the points downwards, the cuts gradually dying away into the body below. On this leaf or ornament the French term it a culot may be practised a touch of the tool which is very common in the renaissance and Louis Quatorze styles, and gives to the work an air of very high finish j it is called by Prench carvers an echappee, from echapper, to escape. It is, in fact, a little ridge of wood that has escaped the cut of the tool. It is used to prolong the lobe of a petal or a leaflet or part of an ornament passing under another, or supposed to pass under another. The upper part of this ornament on the left is divided into three lobes by two notches. From the rib of the centre lobe between the notches, the ornament rounds off to right Now and left. it will be seen from the shading that the right of the centre lobe is prolonged beyond the angle of the notch. This prolongation is by an qchappte. It is made in this way : the gouge is taken in the left hand and held by the right, as will be described in the next chapter, where an illustration of the method of holding the tool will be found. The gouge is then entered at the point of the lobe and, taking off a thin shave, the outer corner of the tool travels along the upper edge of the lobe, and sweeps on in the line of the shading, and then gradually lowers out. It must be remembered that to make an ecliappee the tool must always be on the highest side. In the next chapter, in the illustration of the leg of a music-stool, will be seen several examples of this echappee. The knack or art of making the echappee is difficult to acquire so as to do it neatly, but it is worth all the trouble that can be bestowed on it. Masses of foliage, or any very prominent parts of a piece of carving, are almost always built up instead of being hewn out of solid blocks of wood. Take a picture-frame, for instance. Suppose the wood to be one-and-a-half inches thick, sufficient for the scroll work or the foliage all round. On the top may be a shell, or some ornament projecting forward and requiring an inch :more thickness of wood. To make the whole frame, or even the whole of the top frame an extra inch thick on account of this ornament, would be a wasteful expenditure of time and AND WOOD CARVING. 103 materials too. Carvers leave a level place called a seat, where this extra thickness is required, and glue on a piece, taking care that the colour of the piece glued on shall be the same as that of the seat, the grain going in the same direction. In this way carvers build up large pieces of work, and save much time and money by the method. I conclude this^chapter with a sketch of a rose, the proper size for carving, and a very pretty ornament of the same nature as the one above treated of. The rose itself should be carved half an inch deep at least that is, the ground should be sunk quite half an inch. The petals on the right of the rose that is, the outer petals should be cut deep towards the inside ; the centre petal of the three turns up a 104 A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING little in the middle. Outline the rose, mark with the gouge the position and shape of the three petals next to the outer ones, strike off the wood to the round form of the rose, then with a pencil the remaining petals must be outlined, and then marked with the gouge. See that the position of each petal is correctly placed, and before commencing to carve, ascertain it by careful measurement with compasses. The centre unopened petals of the rose must be carved as deep as the level of the ground. Carve the leaves with a raised rib ; and to vary the lay of each leaflet, let one point up a little, the end of another droop over, and so vary them that the ensemble may be pleasing, instead of tame and flat. The other ornament should be carved with the same thickness of wood ; the hole in the centre, the inside of the leaflets to the left and to the right, must be carved as deep as the ground will allow j and the lines drawn in the centre of each division of the leaf must be incised with the graining gouge. My readers may like to have a good black stain, so I give one. i. Gall nuts coarsely broken . . Rain-water Boil and reduce one half. 2 ounces. I quart 2. White Vinegar . . I pint. Iron filings a ounces Antimony (powdered) . . . a Vitriol I Logwood a small handful. Infuse in bottle eight days, tying the cork down. To stain a piece of wood, give the wood a coating of AND WOOD CARVING. 105 No. i, it acts as a mordant ; when nearly dry put on No. a ; let it dry quite, and then brush it over again with No. 2 j keep down the fibre that may be raised, and then varnish. A fine brown stain is procured as follows : Take a pound of the brown pigment called Terre de Cassel, put it into a glazed pot with 4 quarts of rain-water, boil until it is reduced one-half. Mix 3 oz. (troy) of white potash with sufficient water to dissolve it, and mix with the Terre de Cassel. This receipt was given to me by a French carver j the brown pigment is well known to artist's colourmen as Cassel earth. This stain must also be put on with a brush, two or even three times, according to the depth of shade required. io6 A MANUAL OP FRET CUTTING CHAPTER IX. INTEND, in this chapter, to give my young readers some further directions about carving in the solid, to show them how, in the higher branches of the art, the work is laid out and grounded, or blocked out, the features bosted, and then finished ; how to execute those two beautiful edging ornaments, the bead and the ribbon round the stick how to make the notch in deli; cate leaves without splitting them out, and to give some further instructions about grounding. But, before commencing, I wish to recur again to two principles laid down in former chapters, and to urge them as my strongly as possible on the attention of all readers, especially of those who wish to become skilful and finished carvers. In Chapter IV., page 35, 1 laid down this maxim what- ever you cut, cut clean 5 leave no rags, jags, or fragments ; and in Chapter IV., page 37, I urged my readers to learn to use their tools with their left hand as well as with the right. The first of these principles I consider so important, that my although I have already explained reasons for it, I refer to it again, as I wish, if possible, to force it on the attention my of readers, and so induce them to put it in practice, and carry it out thoroughly. AND WOOD CARVING. 107 The maxim, "cut clean," is of far greater importance than would appear at first sight, and for two special reasons. First, a thorough attention to the rule ensures clean and careful work, both in hosting and finishing ; secondly, it is a great element of rapidity of work. There is no necessity for going over it again after the clean finishing cut. No work can look really well, and bear close inspection unless neatly finished j and no amateur will ever finish off his work neatly, and in a workmanlike manner, unless he learns from the first to cut clean ; he will have acquired a slovenly, unworkmanlike style. It is true, he may be able to finish off his work pretty well by taking infinite pains, and going over it again and again ; but the process is painfully tedious, very dishearten- ing, and at the end the work will not wear the look of high finish that it would assume under the hands of a workman who from the first had learned to cut clean. Moreover, in thus finishing their work with painful tediousness, the element of rapidity is lost. Many amateurs of my acquaintance turn out large pieces of work that, from the design and style, look handsome enough, but will not bear close inspection, because the work is not highly or neatly finished, such finish being beyond their powers, because they have neglected this most impor- tant principle. " Oh," they say, " I have not patience to finish up my work j" and they say truly, for nothing can be more tedious or more disheartening than to have to go over again, and yet again, work that would have been finished easily, had they learned from the first to " cut clean." But remember that to cut clean, especially in finishing, the tools must be as sharp as oilstone and leather strap can make 8 io8 A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING them. In many instances the wood must be cut against the grain, and unless the tools are as sharp as they can be made, with fine long bevels, the work will look ragged and ill- finished. The second point I have to bring again to the notice of my readers is to be found in Chapter IV., page 37, " Learn to use the tools with the left hand as well as the right." At first this seems most difficult almost impossible but it is a mere matter of practice and patience, and in a week's time the left hand, with continual practice, will have acquired sufficient skill to encourage the amateur to per- severe. There is a way, too, of holding the tool, so as to make the right hand guide it, which, being of considerable import- ance, I will endeavour to explain. Put the right wrist firmly down on the work, grasp the lower part of the handle with the fingers of the right hand, placing the thumb firmly against the side of the handle up towards the butt ; the right hand will thus be able to guide the tool ; then the left hand must grasp the top or butt of the handle, and supply the propelling power. In course of time, and with practice, the left hand will be able to guide the tool as well as the right. The annexed drawing will explain the method. It is worth any trouble to learn to carve with the left hand. That person who can only use the right hand will constantly have to turn and refix his work, and then turn it again and again, losing one-third of his time. Moreover, he will never be able to carve a face and head. The French carvers fasten their work down upon their bench, whenever possible, with four long, slender nails j they use their right AND WOOD CARVING. 109 and left hands alternately, finish their work beautifully, and get through it rapidly. I will now enter on the subjects proposed at the commencement of this chapter, and will begin with some further hints about grounding. Amateurs frequently experience great difficulty in A grounding their work. piece, for instance, composed of intertwined branches and leaves, where the spaces are small, and the ground has to be sunk deep j the difficulty being to get out the wood from the small spaces, and leave the ground even and smooth, and of a proper level through- out. When I first commenced wood-carving, I experienced this difficulty myself in more than one instance, and was driven to the verge of despair at seeing how uneven and my haggled the ground appeared, in spite of all best endea- vours to get it smooth. I did eventually improve the my grounding, but not to entire satisfaction. I commenced, like all amateurs, by trying to sink the ground in these con- no A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING fined spaces before touching either leaf or branch. And this was the error I committed. I did not consider that as I sunk the ground, and left the branches untouched, they became like so many surrounding walls, and prevented the use of the proper tools, the flat gouges. I could use none but bent chisels ; so that the act of grounding became more like digging the wood out of little pits than lowering it in a proper manner. I saw there was something wrong, and a little reflection put me on the right method, which is this : in proportion as the ground is being lowered, the intertwining branches and stems must needs be roughly lowered also to something like their proper level, and in their proper places, leaving un- touched only such parts as are intended to stand out to the full thickness of the wood. In this way the ground can mostly be got at with flat gouges. In every way the ground- ing is much facilitated, and can be made even and smooth in the usual way. I may here remark that the English bent chisels are not sufficiently bent. Here is the English bent chisel : It will be seen at a glance that the bend is not nearly sufficient where the space it has to work on is small or confined. Here is the way the chisel should be bent to work AND WOOD CARVING. iit properly in a confined space. Moreover, the properly bent chisel should be bevelled from above, instead of from below, it cuts much better, cleaner, and more easily. If the piece of work is large, and the spaces to be grounded are large, proceed in this way : take the square stick with the screw through it that I have described in a former paper, put the screw through to the required depth, then with a gouge sink several places on the space to be grounded, measuring the depth with the stick ; cut channels from one to the other, and then level the wood between, and the ground will be quite level. The places so sunk should be put quincunx fashion. But to assist in smoothing the ground and getting it level in all parts, carvers frequently make use of a "router," a species of plane. The English carvers make these tools themselves 3 in Paris they are procurable at the tool-maker's, and of several sizes, from seven inches in length up to ten inches, and are called "guimbardes." Its A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING Here is a sketch of one; it will enable the young amateur to construct one for himself. A, face of router. B, shallow mouth leading to plane-iron. c, plane-iron and wedge. Where the ground has been lowered to nearly the proper level, the plane-iron is adjusted to the level. The plane or router is then put across the raised sides of the work being grounded, and the ground is then shaved down little by little. Where the grain of the wood is not kindly, the thinnest shaves must be taken off, and the router must be held very firmly. The next thing to be explained is how to make the notch in a leaf without splitting it. The amateur generally splits the wood when making the notch in small and delicate leaves, and it is exactly in delicate groups that it is most injurious to damage one of the leaves, for then its size or shape must be altered, and this spoils the group. It is, therefore, absolutely necessary that the amateur should learn to make the notch successfully. Here is an example, taken from a sketch of a leg of a music-stool in the style of Louis Quatorze, upon which I have been engaged. An engraving of one of the legs is given further on. Now, it is very evident that, if any one notch in any one of these leaves was to be split out, the size of the leaf must be reduced in order to reproduce the notch. AND WOOD CARVING. n3 This would change the proportion of the leaf, and the effect of the group would be spoiled ; there would be two lanre leaves and one little one, giving to the group an uneven appearance ; and if the whole of the three leaves of the group were to be reduced, then the group would be out of proportion, and the effect would be mean. The notch might A possibly be glued up, but it is poor, cobbling work. In any- small, delicate group of leaves the effect is spoilt when the amateur is compelled to reduce the size of the leaves. Now, here at B is the same group as at A. The notch is put in, but to guide the amateur the general outline of the leaves is put in. Proceed in this way : Cut the leaves down to the proper size and proportion. Lay or bost the leaves as they are intended to be, and undercut them. Here at c is a leaf of the group, at A enlarged, showing the run of the grain of the curved leaves. To cut the notch, first with the gouge cut transversely from A to B, (the leaf having been cut to its proper dimensions,) and whilst ri 4 A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTIXG so cutting press the gouge away from the line A u sideways towards c. This is a compound motion, the forward pressure of the edge from A to B, and a side pressure in the direction of c. In like manner, the long cut from B to c must be a com- pound motion, a downward cat and at the same time a drawing cut from B to c. Great care must be taken to avoid any lateral pressure from B towards A, as this would inevitably split out the notch. The amateur should take a bit of wood and practise this method, his trouble will be well rewarded. I have watched a French carver do numbers of these notches on the smallest and most delicate leaves in " " very splitty wood; he did not split or spoil one, and he told me he never did split any ; he employed the method just described. If the wood should be unusually "splitty," the notch can be cut little by little, the transverse cut being the first commenced. We will now pass on to more interesting work, the method of can-ing a row of beads, or, as the French more elegantly term them, "pearls," and then the method of can-ing that elegant edging ornament, the ribbon round the stick. The first thing to be considered in can-ing a row of "pearls," as we will in future call them, is the tool proper to be used. The principal tool is a hollow gouge, half round. This must be of the exact diameter of the intended pearls. The gouge must be bevelled from the inside to onethird of the outside bevel, and the corners must be rounded off. On the piece of wood intended to be ornamented with a row of pearls, raise what carpenters and joiners term a beading, like this, of the diameter of the intended pearls, and the height according ss the pearls are to project, more or less. AND WOOD CARVING. "5 Take the diameter of the beading with a pair of compasses, and mark it off all along the top of the beading, and pencil each compass mark. Then at each compass mark a notch should be made down to the bottom with a flat gouge, each notch coming to an exact point at the bottom, or the least shade above the bottom, the point to come exactly under where the compass- mark was. When this is done, take the hollow gouge and commence rounding off the pearls. Cut in the direction of the line of pearls, keeping the hand low at the commencement to round of the top off the pearl, then gradually raising the hand till the gouge is perpendicular, this rounds off the pearl to the bottom. But very great care must be taken not to cut the very top of the beading or the pearls will be of unequal height. The cut must commence a very little past the centre of the top. When this is done, cut in the opposite direction, that is down the line of pearls in the same manner, the hand at first low, then gradually rising till the tool is perpendicular, and the pearls have been rounded off to the bottom. ii6 A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING When necessary, cut across the pearls each way until they are perfectly rounded. When the pearls have been nearly rounded, take a bent chisel and very carefully clear out the little bits at the junction of the pearls at their base ; and, lastly, with a bit of half-used glass-paper, rather fine, smooth off the little gouge marks, first running the paper along the pearls, then doubling the paper and rubbing lightly between them. When pearls are raised at the base of a moulding or part of a frame that forms a backing to them, the space between the pearls and the backing is so confined that however skilful a man may be, it is impossible, especially when the pearls are small, to get the pieces of wood out from between the pearls and the backing so clean as to look neat and give A the appearance of a perfectly level grounding. very clever young carver, M. Rene Begot, of St. Malo, showed me a dodge that is most ingenious and effective. He makes use of a little instrument of the nature of a punch, the effect of which in clearing the spaces between the pearls and the backing is, as M. Begot truly says, most astonishing. It will be seen that the tool is a triangle below, with one flat and two curved sides. The flat side is the back or outer C side, the opposite point goes between the pearls, and the two curved sidec should be made exactly to fit the curves of the pearls. The metal of the tool gradually slopes away from AND WOOD CARVING. 117 the triangular bottom, as indicated in the sketch, and this is most necessary to prevent the tool from splitting out the pearls. When the amateur has got out the wood from between the pearls, and levelled the ground as well as he can, he should take this tool in his left hand and, inserting the point between the pearls, the flat side against the backing, the curved sides pressing close against the pearls, give the top of the tool a light tap with a hammer ; this will punch down the inequalities, with an effect, when managed adroitly, that is really astonishing. This tool should be made of various sizes, to fit larger or smaller pearls. The back of the tool and the two curved sides should be perfectly smooth and polished, and the exact curve of the pearls can be given to the curved sides of the tool by a fine rat's-tail file, and a Turkey-stone slip will polish them. The punch should be made of fine steel ; common iron very soon gives way at the points and edges. The tool should be tempered, so put it into the fire until it becomes red-hot, then suddenly plunge it into cold water, Repolish the tool, put it again into the fire, and withdraw it as soon as it gets a slight tinge of blue. It will then be An sufficiently hard, but not brittle. old steel file softened in the fire, and then beaten out to the proper size, is most excellent for the purpose. But this system of punches is useful in a variety of cases. The young amateur, for instance, will sometimes encounter a place where one part of a leaf passing under another, a pointed and deep oval is formed. To get the bottom of this oval perfectly smooth and level with the tools is most difficult and tedious, but an oval punch effects the object in a moment, and the amateur can make one for him- n3 A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING self in a very short time. All old files should be kept for such purposes, softened in the fire, and then filed down. The ribbon round the stick is a very rich and handsome edging or moulding ornament, when neatly executed, and is worthy of any trouble that may be bestowed upon it. To execute this, first raise a beading of the diameter of the intended ribbon; then take a pair of compasses, and mark off all along the top of the beading two and a half When diameters of the beading. this is done, set off at each mark one diameter ; the marks will then be one diameter and one a half diameter, alternately all along the top of the beading. The one and a-half diameter are the ribbon, the one diameter is the opening between the curls of the ribbon. Now take a bevel, and run a line diagonally through each mark at the angle wished to be given to the curl of the ribbon. An angle of about forty is the best. I may here remark that the width given to the ribbon or to the opening may be varied at pleasure. Some make the ribbon and opening of the same size ; others make the ribbon one diameter, and the opening one and a half diameter the reverse of the above proportions ; others, again, make ribbon one diameter, opening two diameters ; but the proportions above given look better and richer, and, moreover, are more easily and quickly worked. It must be borne in mind that the space between the curls of ribbon will vary according to the breadth of the ribbon, the diameter round which it is rolled, and the angle at which it is rolled. If from the shape of the piece of wood, or any other circumstance, the bevel cannot be employed to mark on the beading the diagonal lines for the ribbon, a common flat ruler must be used, the spots for the lines being first measured off by compasses. AND WOOD CARVING. 119 Care must be taken to rule the first line at the proper angle, as all the others will take the slope from it. Here is a sketch of the way the lines are ruled : 1-2, the diameter; 3-4, a diameter; 4-5, a diameter and a half; and so on. 1-3 forms an angle of forty degrees. After the diagonal lines for the ribbon have been successfully marked and drawn, the next thing is to draw the lines for the stick. First, take a firmer chisel, and with moderate but decided drives with the palm of the hand cut perpendicularly down on the top of the bead at each diagonal mark. It must be cut down the eighth of an inch j then with a chisel adapted to the size cut out to the depth of the eighth of an inch the narrow pieces, the diameters,* leaving untouched all the pieces of one and a half diameter. This will leave a little flat place on the top of the parts forming the intervals between the curls of the ribbon. Now mark a point on the top of the beading at each end to show the exact centre, and points on each side of these to mark the thickness of the stick. Take a flat ruler, and on the spaces cut out rule lines from the points at each end ; and if these points have been correctly placed, the stick will run exactly down the centre. The thickness of the stick may be as much as one- fourth of a diameter, but one-sixth is a better proportion. The sketch here given will explain the method : i-i are the central points ; 2-2 and 2-2 are points marking the thickness * The top only. A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING of the itick j 4 4 4 4 are the pieces cut out and the stick marked out. The stick is left unshaded, in order to show it better. Take the firmer chisel, and cut perpendicularly down the lines marked for the stick, then with a moderately deep gouge take out the wood, not quite down to the bottom, the cut sloping down from A to B. Undercut the stick, so that it may be clear from off the bottom, and f the light may be seen under it. If the amateur will curl up a long narrow slip of paper, and lay it before him, he will see why the cut should slope down from A to B. When the wood be- tween the curls of the ribbon has been cleared out, and the stick undercut, take out the small corners marked 5 in the sketch, to give the breadth of the ribbon below. To get the exact size of the corner to be cut out, measure across the ribbon as at the dotted line at 6, then put the point of the compass at 7> and prick off the breadth at 8. These corners must be cut and taken out neatly, or the effect will be spoiled, and the pieces taken out between the curls of ribbon and alongside the stick must be taken out neatly, and to the same depth, or the effect will be spoiled) and again, the stick must be perfectly in the centre, and of the same thick- ness throughout, or the effect will be spoiled. The corners of the ribbon must be very slightly rounded off and hollowed out, as shown at 7, so A as to follow the curve of the ribbon. look at the piece of curled paper before-mentioned will show this. AND WOOD CARVING. 121 When all this has been done, there only remains, to grain the curls of ribbon. This is done by two strokes of the graining-gouge on each side of the curls and ou the top ; one stroke being made up the ribbon, the other the contrary way, and each stroke from edge t^ edge. This gives the ribbon a wavy appearance, and makes it look richer. If the strokes on each side were made the same way, it would give the ribbon an odd, lop-sided appearance, very unartistic, unworkmanlike, and heavy. I will now endeavour, as I proposed at the commence- ment of this chapter, to show my readers how, in the higher branches of this beautiful art, the design is transferred to the wood, grounded, bosted, and finished. Every piece of carving of any pretension goes through three stages after the design has been put on the wood. First, it is blocked out or grounded that is, the design is marked out by a gouge and chisel, and the ground sunk ; then it is bosted, or rough carved "ebauche," the French term is and then finished. There are several ways of transferring the design to the wood. With the methods of taking off the design on tracing-paper, pasting the tracing on the wood, or of putting the design on to the wood by means of carbonic paper, my readers are already acquainted. These two methods are admirable for flat surfaces but when the surface to be ; carved is rounded they cannot be emplo, ed, and recourse must be had to other means. Here are engravings of a leg of the music-stool, to A which I have already referred. very little consideration will show that it would be impossible, on account of its rounded form, to paste a tracing of the design on it, or to 123 A MANUAL OF FRET CUTTING use the carbonic paper, therefore some different plan must be adopted. The design must be carefully traced off, and the tracingpasted on a piece of thin cardboard. One tracing will be required for each side of the leg ; that which is intended AND WOOD CARVING. 123 for the reverse side may be copied off in pencil, as more expeditious. This pencil-tracing must be pasted on to the card- board, pencil side next to the cardboard, and there will be a right and left copy of the design. The pencil marks will be very distinct through the tracing-paper, and cannot be rubbed out. When the pasting has dried, the cardboard must be cut away very neatly to the outline. The tracing must now be put on a soft board, and pricked through at short intervals with a sharp-pointed pricker. When this has been done throughout, the tracing must be turned over on the board, and the projections raised by the pricker cut off with a very sharp chisel, and, when necessary, the holes round cleared with the pricker. The wood