Model Lessons for Teaching

these forms. The ex^^mples given have such forms as would readily be recognized by comparing them with the figures in the hook. The numbers accompanying these examples correspond with, ajid relate to, the paragraphs in the text. I herewith append a suggestive lesson or two, that may MODEL LESSONS. 97 serve to assist the teacher in the use of the book. I do not suppose that every teacher will pursue exactly my plan ; at the same time, these lessons may be helpful in indicating the manner in which the text may be expounded to the edification and profit of the pupil. The length of a lesson, of course, will depend upon the age and capacity of the pupil, and the time given to a recitation. Suppose the lesson is about Buds. (The time Spring, before the leaves have appeared.) Ask the pupils to bring a quantity of small twigs or " brush." It makes little difference what they are taken from ; any tree or shrub will furnish the specimens. It would be better if the specimens were somewhat branching. Each pupil in the class having taken one of these branching twigs, or bits of brush, ask one what he sees on the end of each branch or stem. He will in all probability answer, "A bud." Ask him if he finds buds anywhere else on the stem or branch ; and he will be very likely to find them along the sides of the stem. As he finds buds on the ends of the stems or branches, you may tell him to call these "end buds," or "terminal buds;" but be sure he understands why they are called terminal, and if he cannot understand this, let him call them "end buds." Let him call the buds he finds on the sides of the stem and branches, side or lateral buds, because they grow on the sides of the stem. Then proceed to examine more carefully the exact place of the buds. Ask if they are arranged in any regular order. Call his attention to the places where the 98 SEWALL'S B0TA2ST. leaves grew the summer before. These places are seen as scars just at the base of the bud. Then tell him to call these buds axillary huds^ because each grows in the axil of the leaf, if, as before, he understands what and where the axil of the leaf is. Call attention to the size of the end buds and the side buds, and ask him to compare one kind with the other, and see if one is larger than the other. If he has a twig of Maple or Hickory, you will ask him to observe that the end bud is larger and stronger than the lateral or side ones ; and if the main stem of his specimen has branches, ask him to compare the end bud on a branch with the end bud of the main stem. Ask him to notice that the end bud of the main stem is larger than the end buds of the branches. Having fixed the places of the buds, next ask him to examine a bud carefully, to see what it is made up of. If -- the bud is somewhat developed that is, has begun to -- expand, he can readily see the small scale-like leaves, and that these small scale-like leaves are attached to a short stem. Perhaps he may be able to count the number of leaves in the bud. Ask him how the bud would appear if the leaves were arranged much farther apart, or the stem made longer while the number of leaves remained the same. In this way you may show how the bud develops into a branch. You may further illustrate the matter by arranging a number of disks or bits of paper on a rubber cord; then, taking hold of the ends of the cord and stretching it, the bits of paper will be drawn further apart, just as the leaves MODEL LESSONS. 99 in the bud are separated widely from each other by the elongation of the stem. The stem may grow five or six feet in a single season ; but it will bear no more leaves than were contained, or were packed, in the lud. -- Call attention to the flower bud to the different manner of its development. The axis or stem of the flower bud remains short. The leaves expand or grow large, differing from the leaves of the foliage bud inform and color. Again, call attention to the fact that the character of the buds determines the character or form of the tree as a whole. If the end or terminal bud is much larger and stronger than the side, lateral or axillary buds, the tree will have a straight central shaft, extending from the ground to the very top. The terminal bud develops and continues the main stem, and the axillary buds produce the branches. The Hickory, Pine, Spruce, are good examples. On the other hand, if there is little or no difference in the size of the buds, the tree will not have a main central axis, but the branches will divide and subdivide, until the whole top of the tree is a vast collection of small twigs. The Elm is a good and familiar example. Now the buds of a single branching limb will tell you at a glance whether it is from a tree of the Hickory kind or from a tree of the Elm kind. Suppose the lesson is about Fruit, Call attention to the definition of fruit, as given in paragraph 123. Keep the fact in mind that the pistil, of which th^ ovary is a part, is a form of leaf, and that if a flower has a number of simple pistils, it will produce or ripen a cluster of simple fruits, each pistil producing a single fruit. 100 sewall's botany. The Blackberry blossom has many simple pistils, the ovaries of which become simple fruits ; and as the pistils are borne on the stem, or receptacle, of the flower, so will each of the fruits be borne on the stem, or receptacle. Let the pupil see and understand that the Blackberry is really a collection of blackberries on an enlarged and pulpy or juicy stem, and that we pluck and eat this stem with the simple berries upon it. In the Raspberry, the fruits, the ripened ovaries, grow upon a smaller stem or receptacle ; but when we pluck the Raspberry, or rather the collection of berries, these berries are detached from the stem, and we eat the berries only. If the stem or receptacle of the Blackberry were to become thickened and enlarged much more than it is, and the real fruits, the ripened ovaries, were thin and dry, and each adhering closely to the small seed, we should have the form and structure of the Strawberry. On the other hand, if the receptacle of the Strawberry were smaller, and the real fruits (commonly called seeds) were enlarged, the walls of the ovaries (which e^iclose the seeds) becoming thick and juicy, we should have the form and structure of the Blackberry. Call attention to the apple blossoms. Observe that the petals fall off, and the stamens wither away, while the calyx grows thick and juicy, and becomes that part of the apple that we eat. The pistil becomes the core, or real fruit, con- taining the seeds. The same general plan may be pursued with any of the subjects treated of; EXAMPLES. 101 8. Examples of Stipules. Apple, Clover, Locust, Pea. 9. Examples of Sessile Leaves, Locust, Purslane, Lead-Plant, Bur Marigold. 12. Examples of Parallel-veined Leaves, Lily of the Valley, Corn, Grasses and Grains.*- 13. Examples of Netted-veined Leaves. Maple, Pea, Bean, Squash. 14. Examples of Feather-veined Leaves.h Elm, Oak, Apple. 15. Examples of Madiate-veined Leaves. Maple, Button-wood, Pumpkin, Cucumber. 17 Examples of Leafforms^ as to Greneral Outline. LiNEAB : Spring Beauty, the Grasses, Oats, Wheat. Lanceolate: False Flax, Peach, Pink, some Violets.' Oblong: Horse-radish, White Clover, Red Cherry.' Elliptical : One of the Magnolias, Sweet Buckeye, Bouncing Bet. Oval : Touch-me-not, Red Clover, Black Thorn. Ovate : Raspberry, Blackberry, Pear. Oebiculae : Golden Saxifrage, Twin-flower, Arrow-wood. Oblanceolate : Lupine, Cherry, Laurel. Spatulate : Wild Daisy, Valerian, Hound's-tongue. CuNEATE : Hop-clover, False Indigo, Hawthorn. 18. Examples of Leafforms^ as to the Base. Cordate : Common Blue Violet, Pansy, Hollyhock. 102 sewall's botany. Renifoem : Marsh Marigold, Wild Ginger, Mallow. AuBicuiiATE : Sheep Sorrel, Magnolia (one species). Sagittate : Arrow-head, some of the Mustards, Knot-weed. Peltate : Water-shield, White Lily, Mandrake.t Hastate: Sorrel, Buckwheat, Joint-weed. 19. Examples of Leaf-forms^ as to the Apex, Acuminate : Mountain Ash, Fuchsia, Water-parsnip. Acute : Choke-cherry, Wild Rose, Sheep-berry. Obtuse: Golden Aster, Pawpaw, Rue. Truncate : Whitewood, Sweet-scented Clover, Vetch. Retuse : Yellow Clover, Tares, Bladder Senna. Obcordate : White Clover, Wood-sorrel, Scorpion, Senna^ 20. Examples of Leafforms^ as to the Margin. Entire: Flax, Quince, Elecampane. Serrate : Basswood, Black Cherry, Iron-weed. Dentate : Wild Snakeroot, Groundsel. Crenate: Twin-flower, Ground-ivy, Catnip. Repand : Laurel Oak, and some other species of the Oak. Sinuate : False Violet, Evening Primrose, Pennywort. Incised : Fire Weed, some of the Maples. ^LoBED : Liver-leaf, Sugar Maple. Cleft : Washington Thorn, Burdock, Vervain. 21.< Parted : Elder, and some of the Anemones. ^Divided: Water-leaf, Strawberry. 23. Examples of Compound Feather-veined Leaves, Prairie Clover, Locust, False Indigo, Walnut. 23. Examples of Compound Radiate-veined Leaves, Horse-chestnut, Sweet Buckeye, Five-finger, EXAMPLES. 103 24. JExamples of Perfoliate Leaves. Bellwort, Honeysuckles, Boneset. 44. Examples of the Boot-stock. Blue Flag, Solomon's Seal, Wake-robin, Bellwort. 45. Examples of the Tuber. Common Potato, Articlioke, Sweet Potato, 46. Examples of the Oorm. Crocus, Putty-root, Gladiolus. 47. Examples of the Bulb. Lily, Onion, Hyacinth, Tulip. 50. Examples of the Stolon. Hobble-bush, Black Raspberry, Gooseberry. 61. Examples of the Bunner. Strawberry, Five-finger, Bugle-weed. 52. Examples of the Tendril. Grape vine. Cucumber, Squash, Virginia Creeper. 57. Examples of Epiphytes (not common). The Long or Black Moss of the Southern States, Lichens, and some Mosses. The latter are not flowering plants, however. 58. Examples of Parasites. Mistletoe, Dodder, Beech-drops, Pine-sap. 65. Examples of the Baceme. Common Locust, Currant, Choke Cherry. 104 sewall's botany. 66. Examples of the Corymh. Hawthorn, Cockspur, Haw, Pear. 67. Examples of the Umbel. Milkweed, Primrose, Caraway, Parsnip. 68. Examples of the Spike.f Mullein, PlaDtain, Vervain, Grasses (compound). 69. Examples of the Head. Button-ball, Button-bush, Dandelion, Thistle. 71. Examples of the Panicle. Catalpa, Oat, and the common Grasses. 73. Examples of the Cyme. Bladder-nut, Ohickweed, Spearmint, Horsemint. 74. Examples of the Fascicle. Sweet-William, Lychnis. 75. Examples of the Grlomerule. Hoarhound, Motherwort. 87, 89. Examples of Perfect Flowers. Flax, Geranium, Rose, Pink. These are also regu- lar flowers. 90, 92, 93. Examples of Imperfect Flowers. Dioecious : Willow, Poplar, Moonseed. MoNCECious: The Oak, Walnut, Nettle. 94. Examples of Incomplete Flowers. Castor-oil Plant, Windflower. Naked : Willow, Lizard's-tail. EXAMPLES. 105 95. Examples of Irregular Flowers. Dutchman's Breeches, Lark-spur, Violet. 115. Examples of Simple Pistils, Peony, Lark-spur, Marsh Marigold, Pea, Bean. 115. 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