Complete Text (Part 2)

compound flowers. ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. ix LESSON XVI. Msrrvatioy, on THe ARRANGEMENT OF THE Caurx anp Corona in THE Bup. . . . p 108. 279, ZEstivation or Prfloration defined. 280, Its principal modes illustrated, viz. the valvate, induplicate, reduplicate, convohute or twisted, and imbricated. 282, 283. Also the open, and the plaited or plicate, and its modification, the supervolute. LESSON XVII. Morrnotocy or tne Stamens. . . . . « p. LIL 284. Stamens considered as to, 285. Their insertion. 286. Their union with each other. 287,288. Their number. 289. Their parts. 290, The Filamen: 291. The Anther. 292, 293, Its attachment to the filament. 294. Its structure. 295. Its mode of opening, Ke. 296. Its morphology, or the way in which it is supposed to be constructed out of a leaf; its use, viz. to produce, 297. Pollen. 298, Structure of pollen-grains. 299. Some of their forms. LESSON XVIIL Morrnoxocy or Pistus. . . . . - . . p. 116. 300. Pistils as to position, 301. As to number. 302. ‘Their parts; Ovary, style, and stigma, 303, 304. Plan of a pistil, whether simple or compound. 305, 306. The simple pistil, or Carpel, and how it answers toa leaf, 307. Its sutures, 308. The Placenta, 309. ‘The Sirhple Pistil, one-celled, $10. and with one style, 911, 812. The Compound Pistil, how composed. 313. With two or more cells: 314. their placentw in the 815. their dissepiments or parti- tions, 316, 317. One-celled compound pistils. 318. With a free central pla- conta. 319, 320. With parietal placenta. 321, Ovary superior or inferior. 822. Open or Gymnospermons pistil: Naked-seeded plants. 323. Ovules. 324. Their structure. 325, 326. Their kinds illustrated. LESSON XIX. Morrnorocy or tne Recerracter. . . . . p. 124 827. The Receptacle or Torus. 328-330. Some of its forms illustrated. 331. The Disk. 332. Curious form of the receptacle in Nelumbium. LESSON XX. Tue Frit... 2 ee pe 1 333, What the Fruit consists of. 334. Fruits which are not such in a strict botanical sense. 335. Simple Fruits. 336, 337. The Pericarp, and the changes it may undergo, 338 Kinds of simple fruits. 339. Fleshy fruits. 340 ‘The Berry. 341. The Pepo or Ground-fruit. 342. The Pome or Applesiait. 343 345. The Drupe or Stone-fruit, 346. Dry fruits. 347. The Acheninm : nature of the Strawberry, 348. Raspberry and Blackberry, 349. Fruit in the Com- posite Family: Pappus. 350. The Utride. 351. The Caryopsis or Grain. 352. ‘The Nut: Cupule. 353. The Samara or Key-fruit. 354. The Capsule or Pod. 355. The Follicle. 356. The Legume and Loment. 357. The true Capsule. 358, 359. Dehiscence, its kinds. 361. The Silique. 362. The Si 363. The Pyxis. 364. Multiple or Collective Fruits. 365. The Strobile or Cone. x ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. LESSON XXI. Tile Seep... ee ped 366, The Sced; its origin. 367. Its parts. 360, 369. Its coats. 370. The Aril or Arillus. 371. Names applied to the parts of the seed. 372, The Ker- nel or Nucleus, 373. The Albumen. 374, 375. The Embryo. 376. The Radicle. 377. The Cotyledons or Sced-leaves : the monocotyledonous, dicoty- ledonous, and polycotyledonous embryo. 378. The Plumule. 379. The circle of vegetable life completed. LESSON XXII. How Prants Grow. . . . 1 6 1 ee es pe hs. 380, 381. Growth, what it is. 382, For the first formation or beginning of a plant dates farther back than to, 383. the embryo in the ripe seed, which is already a plantlet. 384. ‘The formation and the growth of the embryo itself. 385. Action of the pollen on the stigma, and the result. 886. ‘The Embryonal Vesicle, or first cell of the embryo. 387. Its growth and development into the embryo. 888. Growth of the plantlet from the seed. 389. ‘The plant built np of a vast number of cells. 390. Growth consists of the increase in size of cells, and their multiplication in number. LESSON XXIII. Vecetanre Fasric: Ceciviar Tissve.. . p. 142. 391, 392. Organic Structure illustrated : Cells the units or elements of plants. 393. Cellular ‘Tissue. 894,395,397. How the eclls are put together. 396, Inter- cellular spaces, air-pascages. 398. Size of cells. 399. Rapidity of their produc- tion, 400, ‘Their walls colorless ; the colors owing to their contents. 401. ‘The walls sometimes thickened. 402. Cells are closed and whole; yet sap flows from one cell to another. 403. Their varied shapes. LESSON XXIV. Vecerasre Fanric: Woop. ... . . « p.l4i, 404. All plants at the beginning formed of cellular tissue only ; and some never have anything else in their composition. 405. Wood soon appears in most plants. 406. Its nature. 408. Wood-cells or Woody Fibre. 409, Hard wood and soft wood, 410, Wood-cells closed and whole; yet they convey sap. 411. They communicate through thin places: Pine-wood, &c. 412, Bast-cells or fibres of the bark. 413. Ducts or Vessels. 414. The principal kinds. 415. Milk-vessels, Oil-receptacles, &c. LESSON XXV. Asatomy or rae Roor, Stes, axp Leaves. p. 149. 416. The materials of the vegetable fabric, how put together. 417-419. Structure and action of the rootlets. 420. -Root-hairs. 421, Structure of the stem. 422. The two sorts of stem. 423. The Endogenous. 423. The Exo- genous: 425. more particularly explained. 426. Parts of the wood or stem itself, 427. Parts of the bark. 428, Growth of the exogenous stem year after year. 429. Growth of the bark, and what becomes of the older parts. 431. Changes in the wood; Sap-wood. 432, Heartwood. 433. This no longer liv- ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. xt ing. 434, What the living parts of a tree are; their annual renewal. 435. Cambium4ayer or zone of growth in the stem connected with, 436. new root- lets below, and new shoots, buds, and leaves above. 437. Structure of a leaf: its two parts, the woody and the cellular, or, 438. the pulp ; this contains the green matter, or Chlorophyll, 439, 440, Arrangement of the cells of green pulp in the leaf, and structure of its epidermis or skin. 441. Upper side only endures the sunshine. 442. Evaporation or exhalation of moisture from the leaves, 443. Stomates or Breathing-pores, their structure and use. 444. Their numbers. LESSON XXVI. Tue Praxt iv Actiox, porse tHe Work or Vecetatioy. «2... 2... pelbte 446. The office of plants to produce food for animals. 447. Plants feed upon carth and air. 449. Their chemical composition. 450. Two sorts of material. 451, 452. The earthy or inorganic constituents, 453. ‘The organic constituents. 454. These form the Cellulose, or substance of vegetable tissue ; composition of cellulose. 455. The plitnt’s food, from which this is made. 456, Water, furnishing hydrogen and oxygen. 458. Carbonic acid, furnishing, 457. Carbon. 459. The air, containing oxygen and nitrogen ; and also, 460. Carbonic acid; 461. which is absorbed by the leaves, 462. and by the roots, 463, Water and carbonic acid the general food of plants. 464. Assimilation the proper work of plants. 465 ‘Takes place in green parts alone, under the light of the sun. 466-468. Liberates oxygen gas and produces Cellulose or brie. 409. Or else Starch ; its nature and use. 470. Or Sugar; its na- ‘The transformations starch, sugar, &e. undergo. 471. Oils, acids, &e. ‘The formation of all these products restores oxyzen gas to the air. 472, There- fore plants purify the air for animals. 473. While at the same time they pro- duce all the food and fabric of animals. ‘The latter take all their food ready made from plants. 474. And decompose starch, sugar, oil, &c., giving back their ma- terials to the air again as the food of the plant; at the same time producing ani- mal heat, 475. But the fabric or flesh of animals (fibrine, gelatine, &c.) contains nitrogen. 476 This is derived from plants in the form of Proteine. Its nature and how the plant forms it, 477. Earthy matters in the plant form the earthy part of bones, Ge. 478. Dependence of animals upon plants ; showing the great object for which plants were created. LESSON XXVIL Prant-Lirez, 2. 2... p. 166. 479. Life; manifested by its effects; viz its power of transforming matter: 480. And by motion. 481, 482. Plants execute movements as well as animals. 483. Circulation in cells. 484. Free movements of the simplest plants in their forming state. 485. Absorption and conveyance of the sap. 486. Its rise into the leaves. 487. Explained by a mechanical law; Endosmose, 488. Set in ac- tion by evaporation from the leaves. 489. These movements controlled hy the plant, which dircets growth and shapes the fabric by an inherent power. 450— 492. Special movements of a conspicuous sort; such as seen in the bending, twining, revolving, and coiling of stems and tendrils ; in the so-called sleeping and waking states of plants; in movements from irritation, and striking spon. taneous motions, xii ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. 493. Cryptogamous or Flowerless Plants, 494. What they comprise; why socalled. 495. To be studied in other works. LESSON XXVIII. Species anp Kixps. «©.» + + +. + p.173. 496. Plants viewed as to their relationships. 497. Two characteristics of plants and animals: they form themselves, and, 498. They exist as Individu- als, ‘The chain of individuals gives rise to the idea of, 499, 500. Species : as- semblages of individuals, so like that they are inferred to have a common an. cestry. 501. Varieties and Races. 502, ‘Tendency of the progeny to inherit all the peculiarities of the parent; how taken advantage of in developing and fixing races. 503. Diversity and gradation of species ; these so connected as to show all to be formed on one plan, all works of one hand, or realizations of the conceptions of one mind. 504. Kinds, what they depend upon, 505, Genera. 506. Orders or Families, 507. Subordersand Tribes. 508 Classes. 509. The two great Series or grades of plants. 510. The way the various divisions in classification are ranked. LESSON XXIX. Boranicay Names anp Cuaracters. . . . p. 178. 511, 512. Classification ; the two purposes it subserves. 513. Names : plan of nomenclature. 514, 515. Generic names, how formed. 516. Specific names, how formed. 517. Names of Varieties. 518, 519. Names of Orders, Sub- orders, Tribes, &e. 520, 521. Characters. LESSONS XX- XXXII How ro srupy Prats. pp. 181, 187, 191. 522-567. Illustrated by several examples, showing the mode of analyzing and ascertaining the name of an unknown plant, and its place in the system, &c. LESSON XXXIII. Borantcar Systems. . . . . . + + p.195. 568-571. Natural System. 572, 573. Artificial Classification. 574. Arti- ficial System of Linnans. 575. Its twenty-four Classes, enumerated and de- fined. 576. Derivation of their names. 577, 578. Its Orders. LESSON XXXIV. How to correct SpEctMENS AND MAKE aN Herparium. © 2 6065 1 ee + pe 199. 579-582. Directions for collecting specimens. 583, 584. For drying and preserving specimens. 585, 586 For forming an Herbarium. GLOSSARY, or Dictionary or Botanica, Terms. . . + - p. 203 FIRST LESSONS IN BOTANY AND VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY. LESSON L BOTANY AS A BRANCH OF NATURAL HISTORY. 1. Tue subjects of Natural History are, the earth itself and the beings that live upon it. 2. The Inorganic World, or Mineral Kingdom. The earth itself, with the air that surrounds it, and all things naturally belonging to them which are destitute of life, make up the mineral kingdom, or in- organic world. These are called inorganic, or unorganized, because they are not composed of organs, that is, of parts which answer to one another, and make up a whole, such as is a horse, a bird, or a plant. They were formed, but they did not grow, nor proceed from previous bodies like themselves, nor have they the power of pro- ducing other similar bodies, that is, of reproducing their kind. On the other hand, the various living things, or those which have pos. sessed life, compose 3. The Organic World, — the world of organized beings. These consist of organs; of parts which go to make up an individual, a being. And each individual owes its existence to a preceding one like itself, that is, to a parent. It was not merely formed, but produced. At first small and imperfect, it grows and develops by powers of its own; it attains maturity, becomes old, and finally dies. It was formed of inorganic or mineral matter, that is, of earth and air, indeed; but only of this matter under the influence of life: and after life departs, sooner or later, it is decomposed into earth and air again. 1 2 BOTANY, WHAT IT RELATES TO. [resson 1. 4. The organic world consists of two kinds of beings; namely, 1. Plants or Vegetables, which make up what is called the Vegetable Kingdom ; and, 2. Animals, which compose the Animal Kingdom. 5. The Differences between Plants and Animals seem at first sight so obvious and so great, that it would appear more natural to inquire how they resemble rather than how they differ from each other. What likeness does the cow bear to the grass it feeds upon? The one moves freely from place to place, in obedience to its own will, as its wants or convenience require: the other is fixed to the spot of earth where it grew, manifests no will, and makes no movements that are apparent to ordinary observation. The one takes its food into an internal cavity (the stomach), from which it is absorbed into the system: the other absorbs its food directly by its surface, by its roots, leaves, &c. Both possess organs; but the limbs or members of the animal do not at all resemble the root blossoms, é&c. of the plant. All these distinctions, however, gradu- s, leaves, ally disappear, as we come to the lower kinds of plants and the lower animals. Many animals (such as barnacles, coral-animals, and polyps) are fixed to some support as completely as the plant is to the soil; while many plants are not fixed, and some move from place to place by powers of their own. All animals move some of their parts freely; yet in the extent and rapidity of the motion many of them are surpassed by the common Sensitive Plant, by the Venus's Fly-trap, and by some other vegetables; while whole tribes of aquatic plants are so freely and briskly locomotive, that they have until lately been taken for animals. It is among these microscopic tribes that the animal and vegetable nearly approach each other, — so nearly, that it where to draw the line between them. 6. Since the difficulty of distinguishing between animals and plants occurs only, or mainly, in the ingdoms most still uncertain forms which from their minuteness are beyond ordinary observation, we need not further concern ourselves with the question here. Qne, and probably the most absolute, difference, however, ought to be mentioned at the outset, because it enables us to see what plants are made for. It is th 7. Vegetables are nourished by the mineral kingdom, that is, by the ground and the air, which supply all they need, and which they are adapted to live upon; while animals are entirely nourished by vegetables. ‘The great use of plants therefore is, to take portions of LESSON 1.] BOTANY, WHAT IT RELATES TO. 3 earth and air, upon which animals cannot subsist at all, and to con- vert these into something upon which animals can subsist, that is, into food. All food is produced by plants. How this is done, it is the province of Vegetable Physiology to explain. 8. Botany is the name of the science of the vegetable kingdom in general. 9. Physiology is the study of the way a living being lives, and grows, and performs its various operations. ‘The study of plants in this view is the province of Vegetable Physiology. ‘The study of the form and structure of the organs or parts of the vegetable, by which its operations are performed, is the province of Structural Botany. The two together constitute Physiological Botany. With this de- partment the study of Botany should begin; both because it lies at the foundation of all the rest, and because it gives that kind of knowledge of plants which it is desirable every one should possess ; that is, some knowledge of the way in which plants live, grow, and fulfil the purposes of their existence. Lo this subject, accordingly, a large portion of the following Lessons is devoted. 10. ‘The study of plants as to their Ainds is the province of Sys- tematic Botan; An enumeration of the kinds of vegetables, as far as known, classified according to their various degrees of resemblance or difference, constitutes a general System of plants. A similar ac- count of the vegetables of any particular country or district is called a Flora of that country or district. 11. Other departments of Botany come to view when — instead as to what they are in themselves, or as to their of regarding. plants relationship with each other — we consider them in their relations to other things. ‘Their relation to the earth, for instance, as respects their distribution over its surface, gives rise to Geographical Botany, or Botanical Geography. The study of the vegetation of former times, in their fossil remains entombed in the crust of the earth, gives rise to Fossil Botany. The study of plants in respect to their uses to man is the province of Agricultural Botany, Medical Botany, and the like. 4 GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. [LESSON 2. LESSON IL THE GROWTH OF THE PLANT FROM THE SEED. 12. The Course of Vegetation. We see plants growing from the seed in spring-time, and gradually developing their parts: at length’ they blossom, bear fruit, and produce seeds like those from which they grew. Shall we commence the