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€ EEETOO TOEO O WOE 1OHM/18 FPN G 79 GRAY’S a SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK oF BOTANY. CONSISTING OF “LESSONS IN BOTANY,” AND “FIELD, FOREST, AND GARDEN BOTANY,” BOUND IN ONE VOLUME. By ASA GRAY, FISHER PROFESSOR OP NATURAL WISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVERSITY. IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., NEW YORK AND CHICAGO. 1881. 10457 PUBLISHERS’ PREFACE GRAYS SCHOOL AND FIELD BOOK OF BOTANY Tus work consists of the “Lessons rv Botany” and the “Frerp, Forest anp Garpen Borany,” bound together in one complete volume, forming a most popular and comprehensive Scnoot Borany, adapted to beginners and advanced classes, to Agricultural Colleges and Schools, as well as to all other grades in which the science is taught; it is also adapted for use as a hand-book to assist in analyzing plants and flowers in field study of botany, either by classes or individuals, The book is intended to furnish Botanical Classes and beginners with an easier introduction to the Plants of this country, and a much more comprehensive work, than is tne Manvat. Beginning with the first principles, it progresses by easy stages until the student, who is at all diligent, is enabled to master the intricacies of the science. It isa Grammar and Dictionary of Botany, and comprises the common Herbs, Shrubs, and Trees of the Southern as well as the Northern and Middle States, including the commonly cultivated, as well as the native species in fields, gardens, pleasure-grounds, or house culture, and even the conservatory plants ordinarily met with. . This work supplies a great desideratum to the Botanist and Botanical Teacher, there being no similar class-book published in this country. GRAY’S a LESSONS IN BOTANY VEGETABLE PHYSIOLOGY, ILLUSTRATED BY OVER 360 WOOD ENGRAVINGS, FROM ORIGINAL DRAWINGS, BY ISAAC SPRAGUE. TO WHICH IS ADDED A COPIOUS GLOSSARY, oR DICTIONARY OF BOTANICAL TERMS. By ASA GRAY, YISHER PROFESSOR OF NATURAL HISTORY IN HARVARD UNIVEUSITY. IVISON, BLAKEMAN, TAYLOR & CO., NEW YORK AND CHICAGO 1881. Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 127, by GEORGE [. PUTNAM & wt in the Clerk’s Ottice of the District Court for the Southern District of New Yor. Entered according to Act of Congress, in tke year 1868, by ASA GRAY, in the Clerk's Office of the District Court for the District of Massachusetts. PREFACE. Tns book is intended for the use of beginners, and for classes in the common and higher schools,—in which the elements of Botany, one of the most generally interesting of the Natural Sciences, surely ought to be taught, and to be taught correctly, as far as the instruction proceeds. While these Lessons are made as plain and simple as they well can be, all the subjects treated of have been carried far enough to make the book a genuine Grammar of Botany and Vegetable Physiology, and a sufficient introduction to those works in which the plants of a country — especially of our own — are described. Accordingly, as respects the principles of Botany (including Vege- table Physiology), this work is complete in itself, as a school-book for younger classes, and even for the students of our higher seminaries. For it comprises a pretty full account of the structure, organs, growth, and reproduction of plants, and of their important uses in the scheme of creation, — subjects which certainly ought to be as generally understood by all educated people as the elements of Natural Philosophy or Astron- omy are; and which are quite as easy to be learned. The book is also intended to serve as an introduction to the author’s Manual of the Botany of the Northern United States (or to any similar work describing the plants of other districts), and to be to it what a grammar and a dictionary are to a ciassicai author. It consequently con- tains many terms and details which there is no necessity for young stu- dents perfectly to understand in the first instance, and still less to commit to memory, but which they will need to refer to as occasions arise, when they come to analyze flowers, and ascertain the names of our wild plants. To make the book complete in this respect, a full Glossary, or Diction- ary of Terms used. in describing Plants, is added to the volume. This con- tains very many words which are not used in the Manual of Botany; but as they occur in common botanical works, it was thought best to in- troduce and explain them. All the words in the Glossary which seemed to require it are accented. iv PREFACE. It is by no means indispensable for students to go through the volume before commencing with the analysis of plants. When the proper season for botanizing arrives, and when the first twelve Lessons have been gone over, they may take up Lesson XXVIII. and the following ones, and pro- ceed to study the various wild plants they find in blossom, in the manner illustrated in Lesson XXX., &e.,— referring to the Glossary, and thence to the pages of the Lessons, as directed, for explanations of the various distinctions and terms they meet with. ‘Their first essays will necessarily be rather tedious, if not difficult; but each successful attempt smooths the way for the next, and soon these technical terms and distinctions will become nearly as familiar as those of ordinary language. Students who, having mastered this elementary work, wish to extend their acquaintance with Vegetable Anatomy and Physiology, and to con- sider higher questions about the structure and classification of plants, will be prepared to take up the author’s Botanical Text-Book, an Introduction fo Structural Botany, or other more detailed treatises. No care and expense have been spared upon the illustrations of this volume; which, with one or two exceptions, are all original. They were drawn from nature by Mr. Sprague, the most accurate of living botanical artists, and have been as freely introduced as the size to which it was needful to restrict the volume would warrant. To append a set of questions to the foot of each page, although not un- usual in school-books, seems like a reflection upon the competency or the faithfulness of teachers, who surely ought to have mastered the lesson be- fore they undertake to teach it; nor ought facilities to be afforded for teaching, any more than learning, lessons by rote. A full analysis of the contents of the Lessons, however, is very convenient and advantageous. Such an Analysis is here given, in place of the ordinary table of con- tents. This will direct the teacher and the learner at once to the leading ideas and important points of each Lesson, and serve as a basis to ground proper questions on, if such should be needed. ASA GRAY. Harvarp Usiversity, CaMBripcE, January 1, 1857. 4 Revised August, 1668, and alterations made adapting it to the new edition of Manual, and to Field, Forest, and Garden Botany, to which this work is the proper introduction and companion. AG ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS.* LESSON I.—Borany as a Braxcn or Naturat History. . . p. 1. 1, Natural History, its subjects. 2. The Inorganic or Mineral Kingdom, what it is: why called Inorganic. 3. The Organic world, or the world of Or- ganized beings, why so called, and what its peculiarities. 4. What kingdoms 5, 6. Differences between plants and animals. 7. The use of how vegetables are nourished ; and how animals. 8. Botany, how defined. 9. Physiology, and Physiological Botany, what hey relate to. 10. Systematic Botany, what it relates to: a Flora, what it is, 11. Geographical Botany, Fossil Botany, &c., what they relate to. LESSON Il.—Tue Growrn or rus Prant From tHe Seep. . p. 4 12. The Course of Vegetation: general questions proposed. 13. Plants formed on one general plan, 14. The Germinating Plantlet: 15. ¢ miniature in the seed: 16. ‘The Embryo; its parts: 17, 18. how it develops. 19. Opposite growth of Root and Stem: 20, its object or results: 21, 22. the different way each grows. ists in LESSON III. Growrtn or rue Pranr From THe SEED; continued. p. 9. 23. Recapitulation: Ascending and Descending Axis. 24, 25. The Germi- nating Plantlet, how nourished. 26. Deposit of food in the embryo, illustrated in the Squash, &c.: 27. in the Almond, Apple-seed, Beech, &c.: 28. in tho Bean: 29. in the Pea, Oak, and Buckeye : peculiarity of these last. 30, 31. Deposit of food ontside of the embry : various shapes of embryo. 32, 33, Kinds of embryo as to the number of Cotyledons: di- cotyledonous : monocotyledonous: polycotyledonous. 34, 35. Plan of vegeta tion. 36. Simple-stemmed vegetation illustrated. LESSON IV. Tue Growrn or Prasts rrom Bups axp Brancues. p. 20. 87,38. Branching: difference in this respect between roots and stems. 39. Buds, what they are, and where situated: 40. how they grow, and what they become. 41. Plants as to size and duration : herb, annual, biennial, perennial : shrub: tree. 42. Terminal Bud. 43. Axillary Buds. 44. Sealy Buds. 45. Naked Buds. 46. Vigor of vegetation from buds illustrated, 47-49. Plan and arrangement of Branches : opposite: alternate. 50. Symmetry of Branches, + The numbers in the analysis refer to the paragraphs, * a vi ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS, what it depends on: 51, how it becomes incomplete: 51~59. how varied. 58. Definite growth. 54. Indefinite growth. 55. Deliquescent or dissolving stems, how formed. 56. Excurrent stems of spire-shaped trees, how produced. 57. Latent Buds. 58. Adventitions Buds. 9. Accessory or supernumerary Buds. 60. Sorts of Buds recavitulated and defined. LESSON V. Morruoxoay or Rooms... - . . 7 1 1 + pe 28 61-64. Morphology ; what the term means, and how applied in Botany. 65. Primary Root, simple; and, 66. multiple, Rootlets; how roots absorh : time for transplantation, &c. 68. Great amount of surface which a plant spreads out, in the air and in the soil ; reduced in winter, increased in spring. 69. Absorbing surface of roots increased by the root-hairs. 70. Fibrous roots for absorption. 71. Thickened or fleshy roots as storehouse of food. 72, 73. Their principal fons. 74. Biennial roots; their economy. 75. Perennial thickened roots, 76. Potatoes, &c. are not roots. 77. Secondary Roots, their economy. 78. Sometimes striking in open air, when they are, 79. Aerial Roots ; illustrated in Indian Corn, Mangrove, Screw Pine, Banyan, &e. 80. Aerial Rootlets of Ivy. 81. Epiphytes or Air-Plants, illustrated. 82. Parasitic Plants, illustrated by the Mistletoe, Dodder, &e. LESSON VI. Morrnorocy or Stems axp Brancnes. . . . p. 36. 83-85. Forms of stems and branches above ground. 86. Their direction or habit of growth, 87. Culm, Caudex, &e. 88. Suckers : propagation of plants by division, 89. Stolons: propagation by layering or laying. 90. Offsets. 91. Runners. 92. ‘Tendrils; how plants climb by them : their disk-like tips in the Virginia Creeper. 93. Tendrils are sometimes forms of leaves. 94. Spines or Thorns; their nature: Prickles. 95. Strange forms of stems. 96. Subter- ranean stems and branches, 97. The Rootstock or Rhizoma, why stem and not root. 98. Why running rootstocks are so troublesome, and so hard to de- stroy. 99-101, Thickened rootstocks, as depositories of food. 102. Their life and growth. 103. The Tuber. 104, Economy of the Potato-plant. 105. Gradations of tubers into, 106. Corms or solid bulbs : the nature and economy of these, as in Crocus. 107. Gradation of these into, 108. the Bulb: nature of bulbs. 109, 110. ‘Their economy. 111. Their two principal sorts. 112. Bulb- lets. 113. How the foregoing sorts of stems illustrate what is meant by mor- phology. 114. They are imitated in some plants above ground. 115, Consoli- dated forms of vegetation, illustrated by Cactuses, &e. 116. Their economy and adaptation to dry regions. LESSON VII. Morrsonocy or Leaves. . . . +. + + + pe 4% 117. Remarkable states of leaves already noticed. 118, 119. Foliage tho natural form of leaves: others are special forms, or transformations; why 0 called. 120. Leaves as depositories of food, especially the seed-leaves ; and, 121. As Bulb-scales. 122. Leaves as Bud-scales. 123. As Spines. 124. As Ten- drils. 125. As Pitchers. 126. As Fly-traps. 127-129. The same leaf serving various purposes. ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. vii LESSON VIII Moxenorocy or Leaves as Fortace. . . . p. 54 130. Foliage the natural state of leaves. 131. Leaves a contrivance for ine creasing surface: the vast surface of a tree in leaf 132, 133. The parts of a leaf. 134. The blade. 185, Its pulp or soft part and its framework. 136. ‘The latter is wood, and forms the ribs or veins and veinlets. 137. Di use of these, 198. Venation, or mode of veining. 139, Its two kinds. 140. Netted-veined or reticulated, 141. Parallel-veined or nerved. 142. The so- called veins and nerves essentially the same thing; the latter not like the nerves of animals. 143. How the sort of veining of leaves answers to the num- ber of cotyledons and the kind of plant. 144. ‘Two kinds of parallel-veined leaves. 145, 146. Two kinds of netted-veined leaves. 147. Relation of the veining to the shape of the leaf, 148-151. Forms of leaves illustrated, as to general out- line, 152. As to the base. 153. As to the apex. sion and. LESSON IX. Morrnozocy or Leaves as Foutace; continued. p. 61. 154, 155. Leaves either simple or compound. 156-162. Simple leaves il- lustrated as to particular outline, or kind and degree of division, 163. Com- pound leaves, 164. Leaflets. 165. Kinds of compound leaves. 166, 167. ‘The pinnate, and, 168. the palmate or digitate. 169. As to number of leaflets, &e. 170. Leaflets, as to lobing, &e, 171, 172. Doubly or trebly compound leaves of both sorts. 173. Peculiar forms of leaves explained, such as: 174. Perfoliate: 175. Equitant: 176. Those withont blade. 177. Phyllodia, or flattened petioles. 178. Stipules, 179. Sheaths of Grasses; Ligule. LESSON X. Tne Arrancewest or Leaves. . . . 1. 2) pe The 181. Phyllotaxy, or arrangement of leaves on the stem: general sorts of ar- rangement. 182. Leaves arise only one from the same place. 183. Clustered or fascicled leaves explained. 184.. Spiral arrangement of alternate leaves, 185. ‘The two-ranked arrangement. 186. ‘The three-ranked arrangement. 187. The five-ranked arrangement. 188. ‘The fractions by which these are expressed. 189. ‘The eightranked and the thirteen-ranked arrangements. 190, The series of these fractions, and their relations. 191. Opposite and whorled leaves. 192. Symmetry of leaves, Ge. fixed hy mathematical rule, 193, Vernation, or arrangement of leaves in the bn. 194. ‘The principal modes. LESSON XI. Tae Arraxcewexr or Frowens oy THe SrEx, oR INFLORESCENCE. 9. 6. ee 1 ee eT 195. Passage from the Organs of Vegetation to those of Fructification or Re- production. 196. Inflorescence: the arrangement of flowers depends on that of the leaves. 197. They are from either terminal or axillary buds. 198. In- determinate Inflorescence. 199. Its sorts of flower-clusters. 200. Flower- stalks, viz peduncles and pedicels, bracts and bractlets, &e. 201. Raceme. 202. Its gradation into (203) a Corymb, and that (204) into (205) an Umbel. 206. Centripetal order of development 207. The Spike. 208. Tho Hea/ iii ANALYSIS OF THE LESSONS. 209. Spadix. 210. Catkin or Ament. 211, 212. Compound inflorescence of the preceding kinds. 213. Panicle. 214. Thyrsus. 215. Determinate In- yme: centrifugal order of development . Analysis of flower-clusters. 222. Com. in the same plant. florescence exph 6, 217. 218 Fascicle. 219. Glomerule, bination of the two kinds of inflore: ined. LESSON XII. Tne Frower: its Parts on Orcans. . . . . p. 84. 223. The Flower. 224. Its nature and use. 225. Its organs. 226. The Floral Envelopes or leaves of the flower. Calyx and Corolla, together called (227) Perianth. 228. Petals, Sepals. 9 Neutral and “double” flowers, those destitute of, 230. The Essential Organs: Stamens and Pistils. 231, 23: The parts of the flower in their sue cession, 233. The Stamen: its parts. 234. ‘The Pistil : its parts. LESSON XHI. Tue Pray or tHe Frowrr.. . . . . . . . p88 225. Flowers all coustracted upon the same plan, 236, Plan in vegetation referred to, 237-939. ‘Typical or pattern flowers illustrated, those at once perfect, complete, regular, and symmetrical, 241. Imperfect or separated flowers. 242. Incomplete flowers. 243. Symmetry and regularity. 244. Irregular low- ers. 245. Unsymmetrical flowers. 246. Numerical plan of the flower. 247. Alternation of the successive parts, 248, Occasional obliteration of certain parts. 249. Abortive organs. 250. Multiplication of parts. LESSON XIV. Morrnorocy or tue Frower. . . . . . . p 96 251. Reeapitulation of the varied forms under which stems and leaves appear. 252. These may be called metamorphoses. 253. Flowers are altered branches ; how shown. 254. Their position the same as that oceupied by buds. 255, 256. Leaves of the blossom are really leaves. 257. Stamens a different modifi- cation of the same, 258. Pistils idea of il. 259. The arrangement of the parts of a flower answers to that of the another modification ; the hotani leaves on a branch. LESSON XV. Morenotocy or tur Canyx axp Coromza. . . p. 99. 260. The leaves of the blossom viewed as to the various shapes they assume; as, 261. hy growing together, 262. Union or cohesion of parts of the same sort, rendering the flower, 263. Monopetalous or monosepalous ; various shapes de- fined and named. 265 The tube, and the horder or limb. 266. The claw and the blade, or lamina of a separate petal, &e. 267. When the parts are distinct, polysepalous, and polypetalons. 268. Consolidation, or the growing together of the parts of different sets, 269. Insertion, what it means, and what is meant by the terms Free and Hypogynons. 270. Perigynons insertion. 272, Coherent or adherent calyx, &. 973. Epigynons. 274, Trregularity of parts, 275. Papilionaccous flower, and its parts. 276. Labiate or bilabiate flowers. 277. 278. Ligulate flowers : the so-called