CHAPTER IV PLUMBING (Part 1)

CHAPTER IV PLUMBING IEWS in regard to plumbing have probably changed more radically than in any other branch of house sanitation. The old beliefs have led to certain practices which need to be modified in the interest of true sanitation. Less than a generation ago, books on hygiene fre- quently contained such passages as the following: “If we look for the cause of the large mortality from .zymotic diseases in our cities, we find it principally in sewer-gas poisoning,” or, “To bad plumbing we may attribute the prevalence of pythogeni¢ pneumonia, peritonitis, inflam- matory rheumatism, typhoid and malarial fevers, croup, diphtheria, and many kindred diseases.” It was generally believed that such diseases lurked wherever plumbing was introduced. People read and heard of the dangers threatening them from typhoid fever and diphtheria if they, had water-closets, bathtubs, and washbowls in their houses, but the temptation to enjoy the comfort and con- venience of these appliances often got the better of their fears. When the germ theory of disease was developed, it was seen that if “sewer gas,” or, more properly, sewer air, caused infectious disease, it could only be by carry- ing the specific germs of the disease. It was proved, moreover, that germs adhere to moist surfaces and are 24 PLUMBING 25 not easily given off from liquids into the surrounding air, except by splashing or very strong currents of air or the bursting of bubbles of gas formed by decomposing waste matter. All who observed normal conditions in actual sewers believed that the danger of infection ‘was slight. A few years ago, Major Horrocks, an English ex- perimenter, found typhoid organisms in.a vertical pipe more than three feet above the liquid through which the organisms had been passed. This led people to think that perhaps, after all, sewage emanations might be the cause of outbreaks of disease. On the other hand, many observers had found that the number of bacteria in actual sewer air is extremely small, and that they are generally air forms and not sewage forms. In fact, the air of sewers is usually freer from bacteria than ordinary atmospheric air, as it is usually quieter, and this gives a chance for the bacteria to settle. Later, under the auspices of the Master Plumb- ers’ Association, who with many others desired to have the question settled, Dr. Charles-Edward A. Winslow conducted an investigation and found that mechanical splashing may produce a local infection of the air in immediate contact with the spray, but that it does not extend for any distance or persist for more than a minute or two, and then only four times in two hundred liters of air. He urged that sanitation should deal with prac- tical probabilities rather than with theoretical possibilities, a doctrine which housekeepers may well take to heart. The conclusion from his experiments is that, if one were to breathe for twenty-four hours the undiluted air * of a house-drainage system at any point not immediately 26 HOUSE SANITATION affected by mechanical splashing, less than fifty intestinal bacteria would be taken in, whereas in the amount of New York City water which one would drink in the same time there would be one hundred, or twice as many, ingested. The contrast in the probability of these two experiences occurring to any one living in New York or, in fact, in any city is quite striking. It seems, there- fore, that the chance of direct bacterial infection through the air of drains and sewers is extremely slight. It is not surely known what effect is produced by odors and gases emanating from decomposing matter. It is perfectly clear, however, that, if the process of carrying away wastes is properly conducted, there will be no such emanations. Many plumbing regulations are, however, of such a nature as to retard the flow of sewage and furnish conditions favorable for decomposition. These rules are based on the old idea of the poisonous quality of sewer air. When we are convinced of the real facts, we shall see that the water-carriage system is not merely the most effective but the most sanitary device for carry- ing away liquid waste matter. Scientific experiment and experience alike have shown that the threatened dangers are simply bogies, that germ diseases cannot originate in the plumbing, and, if introduced, the germs can with very great difficulty and not at all in well-constructed plumb- ing make their way out of the system of pipes into the house. Accordingly, instead of reducing the number of fix- tures to a minimum and absolutely prohibiting the use of any in a bedroom or a room without a window, sanitarians are urging the more general use of well-constructed PLUMBING 27 plumbing as a safe and adequate means of maintaining proper standards of personal and domestic cleanliness. There are many plumbing codes. and sets of building regulations which need to be completely revised from the point of view of modern knowledge. The result would undoubtedly be much higher standards of cleanliness and more general sanitation, accompanied by saving of ex- pense in construction. Fortunately, the very great complexity and elabora- tion of pipes which was formerly thought essential has given place to much greater simphicity, and thoroughness of construction is now far better understood. It may still seem to the housekeeper that the system is a thing of mystery, but for the encouragement of the reader it may be likened to a tangled skein in which, after the first few knots are disentangled, the rest of the difficulties vanish of themselves. Defects in plumbing, while not likely to give rise to specific disease, may cause annoyance and discomfort. In many instances these can be averted, without expense or even teclinical skill, by intelligent over- sight and a knowledge of what defects to look for, how to find them, and how to remedy them. When an expert is really needed, a little knowledge enables one to recognize the fact in season to save the heavy penalty of discomfort or expense which delay often involves. In no department of household economy are the old adages about the ounce of prevention and the stitch in time more applicable. The questions aim to save the pound of cure and avert the nine stitches. They do not aim to supplant the mechanic or engineer, or to supply the place of a scientific treatise. 28 HOUSE SANITATION They are based upon the principles stated by Rogers Field as the three canons of house drainage: 1. All refuse matters must be completely and rapidly removed. 2. No passage of air can be allowed to take place from drain or waste pipes into houses. 3- No communication can be permitted to occur be- tween the drains and the water supply. In two ways these questions are designed to be espe- cially helpful. First. To enable those selecting a house to judge of its sanitary condition. It cannot be too strongly urged, in this connection, that every inch of pipe, every drain and joint and trap, must have been seen and tested by the plumbing inspector of the Board of Health. Qne test should be made when the house is in process of construc- tion, before any of the plumbing has been concealed, and another should be made on the completion of the house. If all is satisfactory, a certificate to that effect should be issued by the inspector. Inspection by a competent person should follow at occasional intervals after the house is occupied. Inspection which insures honest workmanship and good materials is of great pecuniary advantage, since a leakage or break is liable not to be discovered until it has produced serious trouble, and then there is often delay in having repairs made and, if the plumbing is concealed more than it should be, the partial demolition of floors and walls is often necessary to get at the root of the trouble. Second. To aid those in charge of a household to maintain healthful conditions. The larger the staff of PLUMBING 29 servants and .a¢ .avre complicated the drainage system, the more necessary is intelligent supervision. When the mistress has little realization of the importance of sanitary precautions, it is scarcely to be expected that even the most trusty servants will display greater interest, foresight, and intelligence in the daily care of the house. The two most important things are undoubtedly to start right in the beginning with a simple and efficient drainage system of good materials, well put in, and to keep all fixtures in good condition by proper use and by constant watchful atten- tion. The importance of apparent trifles must be felt and careful regard paid to them. The fixtures should not re- ceive any material which is neither soluble in water nor easily divided into small particles by the water. News- paper in closets, matches, withered flowers, rags, hair, etc., may cause stoppage of the pipes. Of equal importance is~ the smoothness of the inner surfaces of the pipes, since rough surfaces or the projections which are apt to be left when joints are made serve as a lodging place for solid matter passing through the ‘pipes. The following brief descriptions may be of help to the reader who is not familiar with plumbing, and it will aid in the most intelligent use of the questions if some simple descriptive manual be read in connection with them to serve for further explanation and illustration. Fixtures include water-closets, washbowls, tubs, sinks, etc. The soil pipe conveys the contents of water-closets and urinals to the house drain. It may also receive the contents of waste pipes.. The waste pipes carry other refuse fluids, as of tubs, sinks, washbowls, etc., only. vib ROP _ HOUSE SANITATION These pipes may discharge either into the soil pipe or directly into the house drain. Fhe house drain is the pipe which receives the contents of the soil and waste pipes and conveys them outside the house. It is nearly hori- zontal, with an inclination of at least one in fifty, while the soil pipe should be vertical. A trap is a bend in a pipe, with or without an enlarge- ment, which retains a sufficient quantity of the water Fic. 1 Fic. 2 that passes through it to prevent the passage of foul air back through the pipe and into the room. There are many kinds of traps. The S trap (Figure 1) and the bottle trap (Figure 2) are in common use. The water standing in the trap is called the seal. It is effective when the water is deep enough to close the pipe entirely and thus prevent the passage of air from the drainage system back into the house: If.it stands lower, space is left above the water for the passage of foul air back through the’ pipe, and the seal is “broken,” as if Figure 3. id A trap, to be effective, must also be of such a size and shape that it will be self-cleansing. If the water seal PLUMBING 3r is too deep, solid matter will not all be carried out of the trap. A seal may be “broken” or “lost” in three ways, vi by siphonage, by evaporation, ‘and by capillary attraction), Siphonage usually occurs under the following condition: When a body of water with considerable momentur is discharged into a pipe (as in emptying a pail of slops or flushing a water-closet) it drags air along with it, and + Fis. 3 Fic. 4 Fic. 5 partially exhausts the air in all the branch pipes, The pressure of the atmosphere outside the pipe, upon the water in the trap, will then be greater than that from inside the pipe, and the water in the,trap will be forced down into the pipe, until the water seal is broken and space left for the passage of foul air up into the room, A pot trap is one like Figure 2, with a chamber large enough to hold a deep water seal which cannot be easily broken, A small pot trap will not resist siphonage, but a large one will. These traps, however, retain filth and are liable to clog. (See Figure 4.) The vent pipe is an air pipe attached to the highest 32 HOUSE SANITATION part of the bend in the trap, on the sewer side of the water seal, thus affording free admission of air to the in- side of the pipe, to balance the pressure of the atmosphere outside and preserve the water seal when the air in the branch waste pipes has been swept away by a discharge of water. The opening sometimes becomes clogged, as in Figure 5. In view of this fact, many cities have adopted a com- plicated system of venting and reventing. In this system no trap ented at the crown, as in Figure 5. This re- venting system, requiring as it does a multitude of pipes, is not only very expensive to install, but the multiplicity of joints it es correspondingly the difficulty of keep- ing the pipéS*absolutely tight, unless the joints are per- fectly made, which is very expensive. Under all these circumstances, it is natural that an attempt should have been made to devise a non-siphonable, self-cleansing trap. The S trap fulfills the latter condition and the drum trap the former. The Sanitas trap offers a combination of the two and seems to be the best on the market at present. When it is used, the venting and reventing systems need not be installed. Mechanical traps are those having, in addition to the water-seal, some mechanical contrivance, as valve, ball, flap, etc. They are liable, from their complicated con- struction, to get out of order; they are not self-cleahsing and accumulate deposits. In view of these objections, it is generally considered best to use vent pipes with water-closet traps; and bottle traps, frequently cleaned out, under sinks, basins, and tubs. PLUMBING ‘ 33 The essentials of a sanitary closet are rapid and free flushing; a deep water-seal; avoidance of siphonage; simplicity of construction ; accessibility for cleansing and inspection, There are many modern fixtures which fill these conditions. An excellent modern wash-down closet, including flushing rim, siphon jet, simple yet solid structure, and ample water seal, is described on page 492 of Putnam’s “Plumbing and Household Sanitation,” and another one on page 167 of Starbuck’s “Standard Practical Plumbing.” A list of the old-style, complicated water- closets would include pan and plunger closets, valve, anchor, offset, and long and short hoppers. All but the, last named have the trap below the floor, It is impossible. to keep them clean, and they are prohibited in all modertt plumbing codes. The multiplicity of joints about the short hopper makes it an objectionable fixture. The wash-out closet is prohibited in some places, but, though it requires more care in keeping it clean, it is much liked by nurses and physicians. The question of the disposal of sewage outside the immediate premises is beyond the control of the individual in the city. The disposal of sewage where there is no water-carriage system will be touched upon in a later chapter, but any elaboration of the practical application of the methods suggested should be sought in some treatise devoted to the subject. In Gomclusion, we may quote from Mr. J. Pickering Putnam ten general principles of universal application which might be called The Ten Rules of Sanitary Drainage: This figure shows types of plumbing. which in some places are ~ still required by law, but which should be superseded by more simple and less expensive devices. : PLUMBING 35 1. Simplicity. $ 2. Accessibility. 3- Soundness of material. = 4. Tightness of joints. 5. Ventilation. 6. Thorough flushing. 7. Avoidance of mechanical contrivances. 8. Automatic operation. 9. Economy of water. 10. Noiselessness. QueEsTIONS 1. Have you a plan of the system of pipes in your house? (See W. P. Gerhard’s diagram on preceding page.) 2. Is all the plumbing work exposed to view or easily accessible? ’ 3. Are the fixtures on the different floors placed over each other, so as to avoid horizontal soil and waste pipes? 4. Are all the pipes air-tight, as shown by the pepper- mint or other reliatle test ? Note.—Pour two ounces of oil of peppermint into the soil pipe at its mouth above the roof, if it is accessible, or into the basin or, water-closet nearest the roof, first closing the vent pipés which appear above the roof. Pour in, immediately after, a pailful of hot water; if the odor of peppermint is perceived at any lower fixture, it is an indication that there is an opening in some pipe through which foul air may escape, The peppermint should be kept outside theshouse ufitil’ needed, and the person who pours it in should remain on the roof, or in theirc room with - 36 HOUSE SANITATION closed doors, until the examination of the fixtures below has been made by assistants ; otherwise, the odor will come from the bottle or the clothing of the person and spoil the test. Oil of peppermint is sold for the purpose in two- ounce vials, hermetically sealed. 5. Is the house drain carried in full sight along the face of the cellar wall or suspended from the cellar ceiling ? Note.—If there are fixtures necessitating the laying of the pipe at.a lower level than the cellar, the drain should be laid in a/mason-work trench (or on special foundations, in filled-in land), under the cellar floor, with movable covers, that leakage in the joints of this impor- tant pipe may be surely and quickly detected. 6. Is the drain protected from the settling of the cellar walls by an opening, arched or crossed with a long stone, where it passes through them? 7. Is the continuation of the house drain outside the house to the sewer or cesspool properly laid, ie.2 (a) Are the pipes of small size, not more than five