CHAPTER II The BurtpiInc—Its ENVIRONMENT It has been said that “Governments may stamp the manners, but it is the air they breathe that moulds the form, temper, and genius of a people.” Effect of Climate. In selecting a situation for a house, commercial and economic considerations prevent this point being considered in its broadest sense. The question of climate is one, however, that must, theoretically at any rate, be considered as one of the many points to be taken into account in determining a healthy situation. <Callout type="important" title="Climate's Impact on Health">Some old philosophers noted that inhabitants of temperate zones exhibit greater mental and physical energy compared to those in polar regions.</Callout> It may be said that a man can live in any climate, but he can only do so by ingenuity. That is to say, he takes with him suitable dress, which is merely a mechanical means of preserving his own bodily heat and so forming a portable climate. Other points bearing upon the selection of a situation for a house are rainfall, death-rate, local sanitary administration, freedom from nuisances, elevation and aspect of the land. Effect of Rainfall. When comparatively warm air, more or less laden with moisture, is suddenly chilled, by its ascent into a colder atmosphere, or by its contact with the cold surface of the ground, rain falls. The rainfall varies greatly with the locality. From observations taken over a long period of years, the average rainfall of Great Britain is 836-69 inches. For England and Wales it is 33-76 inches and for Scotland 46:56 inches. <Callout type="warning" title="Humidity Risks">Very humid air is not good for health as it can lead to respiratory issues.</Callout> The average humidity of the air in Great Britain is about 75 per cent.; that is to say, it contains about three-fourths the amount of moisture it could hold. Since the lower the temperature of the air the less the quantity of moisture it will hold, it will be seen that, if the temperature of the air were gradually lowered, a point would be reached at which the quantity of moisture present could only just be held by the air, which would therefore become what is termed “saturated”. A further decrease in temperature would lead to the air parting with some of its moisture in one of the many ways in which this is possible, such as rain, mist, dew, or snow. The degree of humidity of the air is calculated from what is termed the dew-point; that is, the temperature at which the air parts with its water. Fogs and Mists. Closely allied to the question of humidity is that of fogs. The air contains an infinite number of minute particles of solid dust, particles so minute as to be quite invisible to the naked eye except, maybe, when a ray of sunshine enters a darkened room through a chink in a shutter. <Callout type="tip" title="Avoiding Foggy Areas">Yellow or London fog can cause irritation and blacken nostrils due to carbon particles from soot.</Callout> White Fog. White fog results from clear air at a high degree of humidity coming into contact with a layer of colder air, as when it flows into “frost pockets” or over low-lying land, where the temperature is lower. Sea Fog. Sea fog is usually the result of a gentle breeze rolling or drifting warm humid air over a colder area of sea water, when, as before, the droplets of condensed moisture envelop nuclei of dust particles, to drift in clouds or billows of white fog over large tracts of land adjoining (or not far distant from) the coast. Scotch Mist. ‘Scotch mist’ is an atmospheric condition more common in Scotland than in other parts of Great Britain and is usually the result of humid air rising up to a level where it meets a cool layer of air, preventing it from rising higher and condensing the water vapour into a wet mist or a very fine drizzle. High and Low Death Rate. It is often suggested that, in selecting a situation for a house, a locality should be chosen where the death-rate is low, but statistics as to death-rates should be regarded with care, as they can be misleading. Public Services. These are all now excellent in Great Britain, N. America and much of Scandinavia. One would always choose a district which was well provided for in this respect. Artificial Nuisances. Artificial nuisances should of course be avoided. One would not, from choice, erect a house near a factory where an obnoxious trade was carried on, such as chemical works, tanneries, soap works and such establishments; nor would one choose a site adjoining a fever hospital, disinfecting station, cemetery or sewage-disposal works. <Callout type="risk" title="Sewage Risks">Even with modern systems, occasional malfunctions can lead to unpleasant smells.</Callout> The methods for the disposal of sewage have made large advances in recent years, and one can safely say that with a thoroughly up-to-date installation there is no danger from such works, but, notwithstanding this, the best of schemes is likely to get out of gear at times, and nuisance, though possibly not danger, from smell might arise occasionally. It is always desirable to get a good circulation of air around a house. It would therefore appear at first sight as though the best position would be on the top of a hill. This is not so, however, unless the house is protected from the winds by a belt of trees. Low-lying districts should be avoided in all cases if possible, as also should any hollows or places lower than the surrounding land. They are apt to be damp and cold. The banks of rivers, unless many feet above the highest level of the stream, should also be avoided, owing to the risk of floods and dampness. Effect of Contours. The side of a hill is often selected as the site of a house, on the ground that the slope facilitates the drainage. It is never wise to build a house close in to a hill, such a site being damp and the house being liable to damage by the rush of heavy rains. A spur or projection from the side of a hill affords a good site and is not open to the objections just stated. While, generally speaking, sloping land affords, with the reservations just made, a good site, it is necessary to point out that one must consider also the aspect of the slope. Thus a slope facing south is infinitely to be preferred to one facing north. Of course a house should not be too exposed to the glare of the sun. Ground Water, Ground Moisture and Ground Air. Below the surface of the ground, at very varying depths, is a large sheet of water, termed the ground water. In some places its surface is only a foot or so below the ground, while in others it may be as much as hundreds of feet down. The depth of this ground water can be noted approximately by inspecting the water level of any wells in the neighbourhood, and the same method of inspection will disclose the fact that the level of the ground water fluctuates, rising or falling with the presence or absence of heavy rainfall. As the water rises, it forces up through the ground the air previously filling the pores of the soil above it, known as ground air, and takes the place of such air. On falling again, the interstices of the soil are left charged with moisture, termed ground moisture. Ground moisture is also due to the ground water rising by capillary attraction, or being soaked up by the soil and to the evaporation of the water. It will be seen that if the level of the ground water is near the surface, the site will be damp; therefore one should not adopt a site, if avoidable, in which the highest level of the ground water is less than 10 feet below the surface. Both ground air and ground water are constantly moving and therefore require careful consideration. If one house be built at a lower level than another, on a hill-side, for example, there is a risk of soil pollution, the underground water being polluted in its course by leaky drains, cesspools and such things. The air forced upwards out of the soil may also be polluted from the same causes. Every care must be taken to see that the subsoil is free from pollution, since not only must the house itself be protected from the possibility of danger to health (which can be accomplished by means of an impervious layer over its site), but also the ground immediately adjoining the house. Should the level of the ground water be rather high, the site may be greatly improved in value by the drainage of its subsoil. Porosity of Soil. Let us next consider the situation of the house with regard to soil. One may divide this into surface soil and subsoil. The former is of shallow depth, generally formed by the decayed upper surface of the rocks below, mixed with the remains of animal and vegetable matter and often a quantity of alluvial deposit brought to it by running water. This surface soil is generally very absorbent, being disintegrated by worms, ants and other things, and so readily letting air down to the subsoil. The subsoil should be of a porous nature. One may put the principal soils in the following order of preference from a hygienic point of view: gravel, sand, limestone, sandstone, chalk, loam and clay. It is of very great importance that there should be a fairly thick stratum of a porous material before an impermeable layer is reached, otherwise the subsoil will act as a sponge, soaking up and largely retaining the ground water and thus making the site a damp one. Trial holes or borings should be made to determine this point in any important case. ‘Made’ Soil. Sites of former gravel pits, clay workings and such features often become tips for house refuse and miscellaneous rubbish of all sorts, forming what is known as “made” soil. Made soils are very undesirable from a building point of view, being highly charged with organic matter and other impurities. After long exposure to the sun and air they become considerably purified, but they should not, in any case, be built upon for at least ten years after the land has ceased to be a rubbish tip, as it still remains an undesirable soil and may give rise to unequal settlement of foundations. Alluvial soils, and arable land, should also be avoided as good building sites if other land is available, so also should land which has been reclaimed at the mouth of a river. Open Space Round Buildings. The greater the amount of open space around a building the healthier will it be. In the open country there is generally no difficulty on this point. In the towns, where land is more valuable, developers of land have, in the past, shown no great generosity in forming wide roads and laying them out on lines beneficial to the community at large. Local authorities are empowered, by the Public Health Acts or by various local Acts, to make by-laws regulating, among many other things, the width of new streets. The Ministry of Health —and its predecessor, the Local Government Board—have issued a code of Model By-Laws, which have been revised from time to time, and which now recommend a minimum width of 86 feet for new streets, except when these are of short length and small importance and the building line is set well back from the street. <Callout type="tip" title="Wide Streets">Narrower roads with houses close up can lead to poor air circulation.</Callout> it will be open to any local authority to make by-laws (subject to official confirmation) prescribing a greater width than 86 feet as a minimum, and many authorities have done so. The County of London does not come within the purview of these Acts in regard to building and sanitary matters, and the minimum width of new streets here is covered by the London Building Act, which lays down a minimum of 40 feet. An open space is also required at the rear of every dwelling-house, both outside and in the County of London. Planning schemes under the Town and Country Planning Acts usually permit streets to be of less width than required by the by-laws, if they are not likely to carry through traffic, are of short length and are to be flanked by dwelling-houses only; there will, however, be restrictions on the building lines in such schemes, and the houses will be kept well back from these narrow streets. It will be obvious that a narrow road, with the houses set well back, will be better, from a health point of view, than a wider road with the houses close up to it. Planning schemes will also provide for the separation of industrial premises from dwellings, will limit the number of buildings per acre, and the proportion of each plot which can be built upon, so ensuring adequate air space and greater amenity. Best Types of House. It will have been seen from the foregoing that some types of house are better than others; thus, a detached house is the best, since one can get fresh air and light on all four sides of it; a semi-detached house can be placed second in order of preference, air and light being obtainable on three sides. A terrace house is not so good since air and light are obtainable only at front and back. With good planning, however, a through current of air can be ensured. Economic considerations—the necessity of saving in cost of brickwork, roof timbers, ete.—often make it necessary to build in terraces or rows. Town Planning schemes usually limit the number of houses which may be built in one block and prescribe a minimum space between blocks. Blocks
Key Takeaways
- Consider climate when selecting a house location.
- Avoid damp areas, especially those with high ground water levels.
- Ensure good air circulation and open spaces around the building.
Practical Tips
- Choose a site that is not too close to industrial or hazardous facilities for better health.
- Ensure proper drainage systems are in place to avoid soil pollution and unpleasant smells.
- Select a location with a well-planned street layout, including wide roads and open spaces.
Warnings & Risks
- Be cautious of areas prone to fogs and mists, especially those containing pollutants like soot.
- Avoid sites with high ground water levels as they can be damp and unhealthy.
- Do not build on made soils for at least ten years after they cease being a rubbish tip.
Modern Application
While the specific techniques described in this chapter are from an earlier era, the principles of selecting a healthy site based on climate, air quality, and open spaces remain relevant. Modern survival preparedness emphasizes similar considerations but with advanced tools for assessing environmental factors and more stringent regulations to ensure public health.
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: How does humidity affect human health according to this chapter?
According to the chapter, very humid air is not good for health as it can lead to respiratory issues. The higher the temperature of the air, the larger the proportion of moisture it will take up, and saturated air can cause discomfort and other health problems.
Q: What are some signs that a site might have high ground water levels?
The chapter states that if the level of the ground water is near the surface, the site will be damp. Therefore, one should not adopt a site in which the highest level of the ground water is less than 10 feet below the surface.
Q: Why are narrow roads with houses close to them considered less healthy?
Narrower roads with houses close up can lead to poor air circulation, as stated in the chapter. This can result in a buildup of pollutants and reduce overall health benefits for residents.