and malt,— juniper berries and other substances being added to the distilled product. In general, distilled liquors contain from thirty to sixty per cent of alcohol. With these differences of preparation, alcoholic beverages differ greatly among themselves, independently of the quantity of alcohol they contain, and some of their special effects are due to other constituents. The chief danger of most of them, however, lies in the action of the ethyl alcohol upon the system, and we shall confine our discussion to the effects of this substance. <Callout type="important" title="Important">Alcohol is a drug, and like many drugs, may be used in poisonous doses; but it must not be supposed that its real danger lies in always exerting a poisonous effect on the body.</Callout> 12. The Physiological Action of Alcohol. — As to the immediate action of alcohol on the body we may say that it belongs in the same general class of drugs as the ether and chloroform used for anesthesia; in other words, its general action is that of an hypnotic or anesthetic. To as <Callout type="important" title="Important">quote again from Dr. Abel: “An exhilarating action is an inherent property of these substances in certain doses. Occasionally the physician meets with persons who have formed the habit of inhaling chloroform from the palm of the hand or from a lightly saturated handkerchief. The inhalation is usually carried on for a short time only, and its object is to induce a pleasant form of mental stimulation. Only occasionally is the inhalation of chloroform carried on until helpless intoxication occurs.”</Callout> And again : “That alcohol can produce as profound anesthesia as any of the substances named is also well known. In the days before anesthesia it was the custom of bone setters to ply their patients with alcohol in order to facilitate the reduction of difficult dislocations. . . . The anesthesia produced by alcohol is, however, not commendable, since it cannot safely be induced in a short time and is too prolonged. The quantity needed for surgical anesthesia would in many cases lead to a fatal result.” 13. Is Alcohol a Stimulant ? — The view of the action of alcohol just stated is, of course, borne out by the condition of a thoroughly intoxicated person ; but it is opposed to the very general idea that alcohol, except in large doses, is to be regarded as a stimulant. Whether we shall call it a “stimulant” or not depends upon how we use that term. Some of the exhilarating effects of alcoholic drinks might lead us to speak of it in this way. People who have drunk wine often become more talkative, so that the first effects of intoxication often resemble those of stimulation. There is, however, strong reason for thinking that this action is only superficially, and not fundamentally, a case of stimulation, as we shall now see. In studying the physiology of the nervous system we found that processes of inhibition are as important in its operation as are those of excitation ; and in mental operations the course of our thinking is constantly checked or inhibited by the knowledge of facts opposed to the conclusions towards which we are tending. Probably it is this essential feature of all accurate and valuable mental work which is the first to be paralyzed by alcohol. The man who takes alcohol becomes fluent, not because he is stimulated, but because of the removal of checks whose presence may make him talk less fluently, but which at the same time make him speak more accurately. He may become witty, and may say some brilliant things; but he will almost always do and say some very erratic things. The following (by Dr. Abel) appears to be a sound statement of our present knowledge of this important subject: «« Alcohol is not found by psychologists to increase the quantity or vigor of mental operations; in fact, it clearly tends to lessen the power of clear and consecutive reasoning. In many respects its action on the higher functions of the mind resembles that of fatigue of the brain, though with this action is associated a tendency to greater motor energy and ease. “In speaking of a certain type of individual James says: ‘It is the absence of scruples, of consequences, of considerations, the extraordinary simplification of each moment’s outlook, that gives to the explosive individual such motor energy and ease. This description aptly applies to the individual who is under the influence of a ‘ moderate’ quantity of alcohol. It tends to turn the inhibitive type of mind into the ‘hair-trigger’ type. We have said that the speech and the bearing of men, the play of their features, all bear witness to the action of alcohol on the brain; that it removes restraints, blunts too acute sensibilities, dispels sensations of fatigue, causes a certain type of ideas and mental images to follow each other with greater rapidity, and gives a ‘ cerebral sense of richness.’ “Larger quantities, such as are for most individuals represented by one or two bottles of wine (ten per cent) of alcohol), may, according to the resistance and type of individual in question, cause a lack of control of the emotions; noticeably affect the power of attention, of clear judgment and reason ; and decidedly lower the acuteness of the several senses. In many individuals such quantities will — develop so marked an anesthetic action that all phenomena of intoxication may be seen to follow each other in due sequence, finally to end in the sleep of drunkenness. “There has been much discussion as to whether alcohol is in any sense a stimulant for the brain. We have seen that pharmacologists of high repute deny that it has this action, holding that alcohol is a sedative or narcotic substance which belongs to the same class as paraldehyde and chloroform ; that its stimulating action is but fictitious; and that even the earlier phenomena of its action are to be referred to a paralyzing action on cerebral (inhibitory) functions. This theory assumes an unequal action on cerebral functions in the order of time. Kraepelin, however, holds that this is a purely subjective analysis, and that in the early stages of its action alcohol truly stimulates the motor functions of the brain; that a state of mental exhilaration, of ‘motor excitability,’ may coexist with undiminished power of perception and judgment. His psychological experiments on the action of alcohol, taken all in all, do not, however, entirely prove his position.” Some cases’ of apparent stimulation are really due to the fact that aleohol, when taken in the form of wines and distilled liquors, sets up an irritation in the mucous membrane of the mouth, cesophagus, and stomach, which re- flealy excites the heart to greater activity or for the time being reflezly stimulates the nervous system. Such stimulation is, however, transient and, as the alcohol is absorbed into the blood, gives way to depression and even stupor. It is neither possible nor necessary to state here in full the reasons which have led to what seems to the authors <Callout type="important" title="Important">the erroneous view that alcohol in small doses is a stimulant and only in larger doses a depressant and hypnotic.</Callout> Enough has been said to show that there are at least two opinions about the matter: that even if alcohol is at times a stimulant, it is an uncertain stimulant; and that its excitation is liable to give way at any time to depressing effects. A critical examination of the literature on the subject has failed to demonstrate to us a direct stimulating action of alcohol on any of the functions, such as the beat of the heart, respiration, digestion, etc. At times, especially in sickness, alcohol may be useful; but the evidence tends to the conclusion that where it exerts any physiological action on the healthy body at all, that action is usually depressing. This is notably true as to the beat of the heart, as to respiration and as to the ability to do muscular work. We have dwelt at length upon this question in order to disabuse the student’s mind of the idea that alcoholic drinks can be safely depended upon as an aid in the perform-— ance of work. Few causes are more effective in leading to the abuse of alcohol than the idea that when one finds difficulty in doing a thing it may be accomplished ‘more easily by having recourse to beer or wine or whisky for their “stimulating” effect. In general, so far is this from being the truth that the person seeking such aid is really using a hypnotic and depressant. Obviously he would be acting more wisely to adopt other methods of accomplish-— ing his end. Nor is this conclusion merely theoretical. Brain workers who wish to “keep a clear head” almost universally avoid alcoholic drinks, at least until work is over. And even among those who do drink it is customary to avoid drinking until the day’s work is done. 14. Alcohol in Muscular Work.— That the general effect of alcoholic drinks is to depress rather than stimulate the powers of the body is furthermore indicated by the results <Callout type="important" title="Important">of experiments on men doing heavy work, as, for example, soldiers on forced marches. In the Ashanti campaign the effect of alcohol as compared with beef tea was tested. “It was found that when a ration of rum was served out, the soldier at first marched more briskly, but after about three miles had been traversed the effect of it seemed to be worn off, and then he lagged more than before. If asecond ration were given, its effect was less marked, and wore off sooner than that of the first. A ration of beef tea, however, seemed to have as great a stimulating power as one of rum, and not to be followed by any secondary depression.” (Lauder Brunton)</Callout> The results of these and other experiments lead us to the conclusion that alcohol cannot be depended upon to increase the capacity for hard muscular work, and that in the great majority of cases it actually diminishes it. 15. The Dilation of Cutaneous Arteries by Alcohol. — One of the most important effects of alcoholic drinks is the dilation of the arteries of the skin, thus sending more warm blood to the surface. It is a common experience among persons not accustomed to alcoholic drinks that even a small amount <Callout type="important" title="Important">makes the face hot’ and flushed, and the red face of the toper is proverbial. The result of this dilating effect is that the temperature of the skin rises and the individual feels warmer. Congested states of internal organs may thus be relieved, and this is probably one reason/why men leading an exclusively sedentary life often use alcoholic drinks apparently to some advantage. But even these would do infinitely better to secure the same result by proper muscular activity.</Callout> Even if a temporary advantage appears to be gained in some cases or at some times, this has often to be paid for by bad secondary effects, such as impaired capacity for good work some hours later; and in mental work of the highest kind, such as original writing or composition, the after effects of alcoholic drinks are sometimes prolonged and easily detected by the subject of the experiment. — 16. Alcohol as a Defense against Exposure to Cold. — Because of this effect upon the cutaneous circulation alcoholic drinks are frequently used by men exposed to cold, with the mistaken idea that the conditions within the body are thereby improved. The student has, however, learned (p. 192) that a feeling or sensation of warmth does not necessarily indicate greater heat production within the body; and he also knows that bringing the blood to the skin when the body is exposed to cold serves to increase the loss of heat. As a matter of fact, the internal temperature often falls when alcohol is taken under these conditions. The story is told of some woodsmen who were overtaken by a severe snowstorm and had to spend the night away from camp; they had with them a bottle of whisky, and, chilled to the bone, some imbibed freely while others refused to drink. Those who drank soon felt comfortable and went to sleep in their improvised shelter; those who did not drink felt very uncomfortable throughout the night and could get no sleep, but in the morning they were alive and able to struggle back to camp, while their companions, who had used alcoholic drinks were found frozen to death. They had purchased relief from their unpleasant sensations of cold at the cost of lowering their body temperature below the safety point. This, if true, was, of course, an extreme case; but it accords with the universal experience of arctic travelers and of lumbermen and hunters in northern woods, that the use of alcohol during exposure to cold, although contributing greatly to one’s comfort for the time being, is generally followed by undesirable or dangerous after effects. 17. Alcohol as a Food. — There has been much discussion as to whether alcohol is or is not a food, i.e. whether its oxidation within the body may supply energy. This <Callout type="important" title="Important">question must now be answered in the affirmative, although whether it can do more than supply heat to maintain the body temperature, i.e. whether it can also supply the power for muscular work, as do fats and carbohydrates, we cannot in the present state of our knowledge positively say. In many cases of sickness the oxidation of alcohol is probably a useful source of heat production, since it is absorbed quickly and without digestion; but the healthy man does not and should not use it in this way. The amounts which would be required to be of any considerable service as food are far beyond those in which it may be used with safety. In other words, in using alcohol for food, one would be obtaining heat at the cost of direct injury to many organs, and also at the cost of impaired working power. Moreover, men do not use alcohol as a food; they use it as a drug. So that while the action of alcohol as a food is of practical importance to the physician, who must deal with the abnormal conditions of disease, its action as a food is not a matter of practical importance to healthy people.</Callout> 18. Pathological Conditions Due to the Use of Alcohol. — When alcoholic beverages are taken in excessive amounts we have the sad and degrading spectacle of a “drunken spree.” Whether or not the drinker at first appears bright or witty, sooner or later there is presented the pitiable picture of complete loss of nervous coordination and control. The man becomes silly, or maudlin, or pugnacious, as the case may be, but always irrational; he staggers, stumbles, or falls ; and finally passes into a drunken stupor. In this event the victim of his own indulgence is said to be “dead” drunk, or “intoxicated,” being as it were thoroughly poisoned. If such intoxication is frequently repeated, there is a complete breakdown of the nervous system; the victim of alcoholic indulgence becomes a raving maniac, and with disordered vision thinks he sees all about him snakes or foul vermin (delirium tremens). The silly or foolish stage <Callout type="important" title="Important">sometimes provokes smiles or laughter in thoughtless observers, but none can witness the more serious consequences of repeated intoxication by alcoholic drinks without disgust and horror. Many steady drinkers, even though they have never been drunk in their lives, are apt ultimately to acquire various diseased conditions of the body, into which we cannot enter in detail. The heart may be injured, or the arteries become diseased; the repeated irritation of the stomach may produce chronic gastritis ; or the connective tissue of the liver and kidneys may increase, thus crowding upon the living cells and ultimately throwing a large part of them entirely out of use. While it must not be supposed that drinking alcohol is the sole cause of these troubles, — for some or all of them may come from other causes, —the frequency of their occurrence in steady drinkers is suspiciously high, and this has
Key Takeaways
- Alcohol is a drug that can be used in poisonous doses but does not always exert a poisonous effect on the body.
- Alcohol primarily acts as an anesthetic or hypnotic, rather than a stimulant for mental and physical tasks.
- Excessive alcohol consumption leads to significant health risks including heart damage, liver disease, and neurological disorders.
Practical Tips
- Avoid using alcohol as a crutch for work performance; it is more effective to use proper techniques and tools.
- Understand that alcohol can temporarily relieve cold exposure but may lead to hypothermia in the long term.
- Use alcohol cautiously if you need heat, such as during cold weather, but be aware of potential long-term health risks.
Warnings & Risks
- Do not rely on alcohol for work performance or mental clarity; it can impair judgment and decision-making.
- Excessive alcohol consumption can lead to serious health issues like delirium tremens and chronic diseases.
- Avoid using alcohol as a food source, as it can cause direct injury to organs and reduce overall working capacity.
Modern Application
While the historical context of this chapter may differ from modern survival scenarios, many of the principles regarding alcohol's effects on the body still apply. Understanding how alcohol impacts mental clarity, physical performance, and long-term health is crucial for anyone preparing for emergencies or prolonged situations where these factors could be critical.
Frequently Asked Questions
Q: Can alcohol be used as a stimulant in small doses?
According to the chapter, even if alcohol can produce some stimulating effects, it is often considered an uncertain stimulant. The primary action of alcohol is more accurately described as an anesthetic or hypnotic effect, and its use should not be relied upon for mental or physical tasks.
Q: What are the long-term health risks associated with excessive alcohol consumption?
Excessive alcohol consumption can lead to serious health issues such as heart damage, liver disease, chronic gastritis, and neurological disorders. The chapter notes that steady drinkers often develop various diseased conditions of the body, which can be debilitating or even life-threatening.
Q: Can alcohol help with cold exposure?
Alcohol can provide temporary relief by dilating skin arteries and making one feel warmer on the surface. However, this effect can lead to a drop in internal temperature, potentially causing hypothermia. The chapter recommends using proper physical activity instead of alcohol for warmth.